Explore the past, present, and future of ethanol fuel in: Sustainable Ethanol (ISBN: 978-0-9786293-0-4). Check out reviews at the New Great Books site and drivingethanol.org. Order your copy through online vendors such as:
News Releases for Sustainable Ethanol
For Immediate Release
Contact: Jeffrey Goettemoeller, 660-528-0768
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
“…my very sincere congratulations and admiration. Your book is a very useful and insightful overview of a complex and promising new technology.” —Bill Kovarik, Ph.D., Radford University School of Communication. Coauthor, The Forbidden Fuel: Power Alcohol in the Twentieth Century
Setting the Record Straight about Ethanol
December 2007 — In their new book, Sustainable Ethanol, the Goettemoeller brothers clear up some misconceptions about today’s fuel ethanol industry.
Myth #1:
“Ethanol always gets worse fuel economy compared to gasoline.”
Find out about new technologies that could eliminate the ethanol fuel economy deficit in Flex-Fuel vehicles and discover why E10 (10% ethanol) actually boosts miles per gallon in some cars!
Myth #2:
“It takes more fossil energy to make a gallon of ethanol than we can replace by using that gallon.”
Find out why ethanol’s fossil energy replacement ratio is actually positive, improving rapidly, and why other metrics such as petroleum replacement ratio give a better picture of ethanol’s benefit to society.
Myth #3:
“Increasing ethanol production is making world hunger worse.”
The opposite may be true in some developing countries where farmers are better able to make a living with higher grain prices. Also, perennial crops could help restore worn-out soils while providing the raw material for cellulosic ethanol.
Myth #4:
“Ethanol can’t be shipped by pipeline.”
The obstacles to shipping ethanol by pipeline can be overcome. Find out about successful Brazilian ethanol pipelines, U.S. tests involving ethanol transport in an existing multi-product pipeline, and the possibility of dedicated ethanol pipelines in the U.S.
Myth #5:
“We can’t make enough ethanol to make a real difference.”
It will take many different technologies working together to replace imported oil. Find out why ethanol and other biofuels have the potential to make a significant difference as we move beyond corn kernels to more plentiful cellulosic energy crops and waste materials as feedstocks.
Sustainable Ethanol is available from www.ethanolbook.com, www.amazon.com, www.barnesandnoble.com, or contact Prairie Oak Publishing: prairieoakpub@gmail.com.
###
For Immediate Release
Contact: Jeffrey Goettemoeller, 660-528-0768
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
Is Ethanol Good for America?
November 2007 — The age of cheap oil is over and we must find alternatives. Our energy security is at risk. Can fuel ethanol reduce our dependence on oil? A new book, Sustainable Ethanol, considers this question by exploring the past, present, and future of ethanol as a fuel.
Ethanol is a domestically produced alternative to gasoline, but is it truly renewable? Skeptics worry about the fossil fuels and corn kernels used for ethanol production. But farmers and ethanol producers are becoming more efficient and less reliant on fossil fuels. Cellulosic ethanol will accelerate this trend. At the same time, automakers are designing a new generation of hybrid and flex-fuel vehicles that will take full advantage of ethanol’s high octane for better fuel economy.
Sustainable Ethanol is about the technological advances making ethanol better for our environment and economy. It will help the reader make sense of the energy problem and the role ethanol can play in our transportation system.
Jeffrey Goettemoeller, author of Stevia Sweet Recipes: Sugar-Free—Naturally, received his degree in horticulture from Northwest Missouri State University, followed by seminary studies. Adrian Goettemoeller is a geologist and environmental scientist with degrees from Northwest Missouri State and the University of Iowa. The Goettemoeller brothers, with backgrounds in environmental remediation, philosophy, theology, and sustainable agriculture, have always been passionate about the natural world and how society might best sustain the good life over the long term. Residing in Missouri’s corn-belt, they lived through the farm crisis of the 1980’s and the birth of a thriving ethanol industry.
Sustainable Ethanol is available from Amazon.com or contact Prairie Oak Publishing: 660-528-0768 or prairieoakpub@gmail.com.
###
Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence by Jeffrey Goettemoeller and Adrian Goettemoeller. 2007, Original Edition, 6 x 9, 196 pages. ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4. $17.00.
Media professionals are welcome to request a review copy.
Prairie Oak Publishing; 221 South Saunders St.; Maryville MO 64468
Phone: (660) 528-0768 Fax: (866) 790-3987
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
Available wholesale from Prairie Oak Publishing or Ingram
http://www.prairieoakpublishing.com/
Contact: Jeffrey Goettemoeller, 660-528-0768
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
“…my very sincere congratulations and admiration. Your book is a very useful and insightful overview of a complex and promising new technology.” —Bill Kovarik, Ph.D., Radford University School of Communication. Coauthor, The Forbidden Fuel: Power Alcohol in the Twentieth Century
Setting the Record Straight about Ethanol
December 2007 — In their new book, Sustainable Ethanol, the Goettemoeller brothers clear up some misconceptions about today’s fuel ethanol industry.
Myth #1:
“Ethanol always gets worse fuel economy compared to gasoline.”
Find out about new technologies that could eliminate the ethanol fuel economy deficit in Flex-Fuel vehicles and discover why E10 (10% ethanol) actually boosts miles per gallon in some cars!
Myth #2:
“It takes more fossil energy to make a gallon of ethanol than we can replace by using that gallon.”
Find out why ethanol’s fossil energy replacement ratio is actually positive, improving rapidly, and why other metrics such as petroleum replacement ratio give a better picture of ethanol’s benefit to society.
Myth #3:
“Increasing ethanol production is making world hunger worse.”
The opposite may be true in some developing countries where farmers are better able to make a living with higher grain prices. Also, perennial crops could help restore worn-out soils while providing the raw material for cellulosic ethanol.
Myth #4:
“Ethanol can’t be shipped by pipeline.”
The obstacles to shipping ethanol by pipeline can be overcome. Find out about successful Brazilian ethanol pipelines, U.S. tests involving ethanol transport in an existing multi-product pipeline, and the possibility of dedicated ethanol pipelines in the U.S.
Myth #5:
“We can’t make enough ethanol to make a real difference.”
It will take many different technologies working together to replace imported oil. Find out why ethanol and other biofuels have the potential to make a significant difference as we move beyond corn kernels to more plentiful cellulosic energy crops and waste materials as feedstocks.
Sustainable Ethanol is available from www.ethanolbook.com, www.amazon.com, www.barnesandnoble.com, or contact Prairie Oak Publishing: prairieoakpub@gmail.com.
###
For Immediate Release
Contact: Jeffrey Goettemoeller, 660-528-0768
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
Is Ethanol Good for America?
November 2007 — The age of cheap oil is over and we must find alternatives. Our energy security is at risk. Can fuel ethanol reduce our dependence on oil? A new book, Sustainable Ethanol, considers this question by exploring the past, present, and future of ethanol as a fuel.
Ethanol is a domestically produced alternative to gasoline, but is it truly renewable? Skeptics worry about the fossil fuels and corn kernels used for ethanol production. But farmers and ethanol producers are becoming more efficient and less reliant on fossil fuels. Cellulosic ethanol will accelerate this trend. At the same time, automakers are designing a new generation of hybrid and flex-fuel vehicles that will take full advantage of ethanol’s high octane for better fuel economy.
Sustainable Ethanol is about the technological advances making ethanol better for our environment and economy. It will help the reader make sense of the energy problem and the role ethanol can play in our transportation system.
Jeffrey Goettemoeller, author of Stevia Sweet Recipes: Sugar-Free—Naturally, received his degree in horticulture from Northwest Missouri State University, followed by seminary studies. Adrian Goettemoeller is a geologist and environmental scientist with degrees from Northwest Missouri State and the University of Iowa. The Goettemoeller brothers, with backgrounds in environmental remediation, philosophy, theology, and sustainable agriculture, have always been passionate about the natural world and how society might best sustain the good life over the long term. Residing in Missouri’s corn-belt, they lived through the farm crisis of the 1980’s and the birth of a thriving ethanol industry.
Sustainable Ethanol is available from Amazon.com or contact Prairie Oak Publishing: 660-528-0768 or prairieoakpub@gmail.com.
###
Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence by Jeffrey Goettemoeller and Adrian Goettemoeller. 2007, Original Edition, 6 x 9, 196 pages. ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4. $17.00.
Media professionals are welcome to request a review copy.
Prairie Oak Publishing; 221 South Saunders St.; Maryville MO 64468
Phone: (660) 528-0768 Fax: (866) 790-3987
prairieoakpub@gmail.com
Available wholesale from Prairie Oak Publishing or Ingram
http://www.prairieoakpublishing.com/
Publication Information for Sustainable Ethanol
Authors: Jeffrey Goettemoeller & Adrian Goettemoeller
Publisher: Prairie Oak Publishing
Edition: 1st
ISBN: 978-0-9786293-0-4
LCCN: 2007929388
Pages: 196
Figures: 22
Binding: perfect bound paperback
Dimensions: 6 by 9 inches
Price: $17.00
Publication Date: September 2007
Retail Availability: Amazon.com, Prairie Oak Publishing, barnesandnoble.com, or ask your local book store to order it for you.
Wholesale Availability: Prairie Oak Publishing, Ingram Book Co., Baker & Taylor
Publisher: Prairie Oak Publishing
Edition: 1st
ISBN: 978-0-9786293-0-4
LCCN: 2007929388
Pages: 196
Figures: 22
Binding: perfect bound paperback
Dimensions: 6 by 9 inches
Price: $17.00
Publication Date: September 2007
Retail Availability: Amazon.com, Prairie Oak Publishing, barnesandnoble.com, or ask your local book store to order it for you.
Wholesale Availability: Prairie Oak Publishing, Ingram Book Co., Baker & Taylor
Table of Contents
from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Front Matter
1. A Brief History of Ethanol Fuel
2. Will Cheap Oil Return?
3. Economic and Security Benefits
4. Environmental Impact
5. E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
6. Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
7. Food, Farming, and Land Use
8. Ethanol Production
9. Cellulosic Ethanol
10. Energy Balance: Is Ethanol Renewable?
11. Facing our Energy Future
Ethanol Questions and Answers
Selected Resources/Bibliography
Glossary
Index
Introduction
from Sustainable Ethanol
The era of cheap oil is over and America is increasingly dependent on imported energy. In our search for energy security and sustainability, is ethanol a viable option or a dead end? Is it truly renewable? Is it good for the environment? In short, is ethanol good for America? This book goes beyond the headlines in search of answers to America’s ethanol questions.
Most North American automobiles run on gasoline, and this will not change quickly. We need ethanol in the near term because it can be used with gasoline in existing vehicles. Soon, new technologies could improve the fuel economy of ethanol-powered vehicles. Ethanol could also be used in combination with electric motors, fuel cells, turbo-chargers, and hydrogen technology.
Critics of ethanol often implicate current farming methods. Today’s ethanol is mostly made from corn grown in an unsustainable manner, with large amounts of petroleum-derived fertilizers and pesticides. However, a growing number of farmers are transitioning to more sustainable practices. Higher fossil fuel prices will accelerate this trend. Farmers are getting better yields with fewer fossil fuel inputs and less soil erosion. (continued below)
Ethanol producers are using fewer fossil fuel inputs as well. Some are even using renewable “process fuels” in place of natural gas or coal. Before long, they will be making cellulosic ethanol, butanol, and biogas from prairie grasses, crop residues, and various organic waste materials. The way we make and use ethanol can be improved dramatically. We are just scratching the surface of ethanol’s potential. Ethanol is not a perfect fuel. There is no such thing. But ethanol is preferable to imported petroleum, and ethanol production is getting more efficient. This book is about the technologies making ethanol make sense. These technologies and the people behind them are why we believe ethanol is good for America. --from Sustainable Ethanol
Click for ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here for information about ordering from Amazon
The era of cheap oil is over and America is increasingly dependent on imported energy. In our search for energy security and sustainability, is ethanol a viable option or a dead end? Is it truly renewable? Is it good for the environment? In short, is ethanol good for America? This book goes beyond the headlines in search of answers to America’s ethanol questions.
Most North American automobiles run on gasoline, and this will not change quickly. We need ethanol in the near term because it can be used with gasoline in existing vehicles. Soon, new technologies could improve the fuel economy of ethanol-powered vehicles. Ethanol could also be used in combination with electric motors, fuel cells, turbo-chargers, and hydrogen technology.
Critics of ethanol often implicate current farming methods. Today’s ethanol is mostly made from corn grown in an unsustainable manner, with large amounts of petroleum-derived fertilizers and pesticides. However, a growing number of farmers are transitioning to more sustainable practices. Higher fossil fuel prices will accelerate this trend. Farmers are getting better yields with fewer fossil fuel inputs and less soil erosion. (continued below)
Ethanol producers are using fewer fossil fuel inputs as well. Some are even using renewable “process fuels” in place of natural gas or coal. Before long, they will be making cellulosic ethanol, butanol, and biogas from prairie grasses, crop residues, and various organic waste materials. The way we make and use ethanol can be improved dramatically. We are just scratching the surface of ethanol’s potential. Ethanol is not a perfect fuel. There is no such thing. But ethanol is preferable to imported petroleum, and ethanol production is getting more efficient. This book is about the technologies making ethanol make sense. These technologies and the people behind them are why we believe ethanol is good for America. --from Sustainable Ethanol
Click for ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here for information about ordering from Amazon
Front Matter
The following is from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Contents
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Disclaimer
Introduction
1. A Brief History of Ethanol Fuel
Lamp Fuel and the First Oil Well
Internal Combustion and the First Fuel Alcohol Movement
Chemurgy and the Second Fuel Alcohol Movement
Oil Embargoes and the Third Fuel Alcohol Movement
The Return of Cheap Oil
The End of Cheap Oil & the Rise of Ethanol
2. Will Cheap Oil Return?
Easy Energy
The Rise and Fall of Big Oil
The Search for “Easy Oil”
Geopolitical Considerations
Growing World Oil Consumption
How Long will Oil Production Grow?
3. Economic and Security Benefits
Economic Impact of Biorefineries
Tax Incentives for Ethanol and Oil
Farm Subsidies
Growing Oil Imports
The Hidden Cost of Imported Oil
Hurricane Vulnerability
Cellulosic Diversification
4. Environmental Impact
Measuring Environmental Impact
Greenhouse Gases
Brazilian Ethanol
Groundwater Pollution
Air Pollution
Feedstock Sourcing
5. E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Running on E10
E10 Price and Fuel Economy
E10 Availability
Running on E85
Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Purchasing a Flex-Fuel Vehicle
E85 Availability
E85 Cost and Fuel Economy
6. Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
Fuel Economy on E10
Improving Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Ethanol and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Ethanol Boosting with Direct Injection
Ethanol, Hydrogen, and Fuel Cells
Hydrated Ethanol
7. Food, Farming, and Land Use
Food Prices
Food AND Fuel from Corn
Ethanol and World Hunger
Fossil Fuels and Agriculture
Sustainable Farming
Land Use Issues
Diversifying Energy Crops
High-Diversity Grassland
Enhancing Food Production with Energy Farming
8. Ethanol Production
New Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sugar Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sweet Sorghum
Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichokes
Ethanol from Food Waste
On-Farm Ethanol from Waste Fruit
Ethanol from Beets
Ethanol from Corn Kernels
Adding Value to Coproducts
Ethanol from Field Peas
Ethanol from Grain Sorghum, Wheat, and Barley
Reducing Process Fuel Use
Reducing Water Use
Alternative Process Fuels
Combined Heat and Power
Ethanol-Livestock Integration
Small-Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol Transportation & Pipeline Issues
Butanol: The Other Alcohol
9. Cellulosic Ethanol
Commercializing Cellulosic Production
Cellulosic Conversion Technologies
Biochemical Methods
Thermochemical Methods
Biogas as a Transportation Fuel
Waste & Coproduct Feedstocks
Agricultural Residue Feedstocks
Dedicated Cellulosic Energy Crops
A Sticky Coproduct
Harvest and Transportation of Feedstocks
The Pyrolysis Route to Cellulosic Ethanol
Regional Biomass Processing Centers
Pipeline Transportation of Corn Stover Silage
Economics of Cellulosic Ethanol
How Much Ethanol Can We Make?
10. Energy Balance: Is Ethanol Renewable?
All BTU’s are Not the Same
Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio
Petroleum Replacement Ratio
Rating Cellulosic Ethanol
Comparing Ethanol and Gasoline
Fuel Economy and Energy Balance
Variables and Trends
11. Facing our Energy Future
Balancing our Energy Budget
Ethanol Questions and Answers
Selected Resources/Bibliography
Glossary
Index
Figures
1-1. Fuel Ethanol Production, 1982–2006
2-1. U.S. Crude Oil Spot Price, 1995–2007
2-2. Percentage of Proved World Oil Reserves by Region, 2005
2-3. World Oil Consumption, 1985–2005
3-1. Estimated Revenue Loss from Tax Incentives for Petroleum and Ethanol
5-1. Same location U.S. National Average Retail Gasoline and E85 Prices, 2006-2007
5-2. Break-even Prices for Gasoline Alternatives Based on Fuel Economy Reduction
6-1. Change in Fuel Economy Using E10 Relative to Ethanol-free Gasoline
7-1. Average Price Paid U.S. Farmers per Bushel of Corn, 1980-2007
7-2. Corn Planted Since 1992 per Market Year
8-1. Ethanol Production Paths
8-2. Ethanol Production by Feedstock, 2006
8-3. Estimated Ethanol Yield by Feedstock
8-4. Estimated Production Cost by Feedstock
8-5. Ethanol Production from Corn Kernels
8-6. Conventional vs. Combined Heat & Power
9-1. The Biochemical Cellulosic Production Process
9-2. Annual Biomass Potential from U.S. Forests and Agriculture
10-1. Calculating Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
10-2. Calculating Petroleum Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
10-3. Energy Balance Ratios for Ethanol and Gasoline
10-4. U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price, 1996–2007
Acknowledgements
We extend our thanks and admiration to the farmers, entrepreneurs, politicians, journalists, investors, scientists, engineers, and others striving to make ethanol production and use more efficient and sustainable. This book is about the technologies making ethanol make sense, yet these technologies are reflections of the dreams, ingenuity, foresight, and hard work of many people, past and present.
Thanks to Ed Malewski for composing a poem for this book. Thanks also to those who provided comments, corrections, testimonials, and encouragement. Thanks especially to friends and family members. Their support and advice is indispensable.
Disclaimer
This book is designed to provide accurate information about the subject matter covered and is sold with the understanding that the publisher and authors are not providing legal, accounting, investment guidance, or other professional services. This book is not intended to provide all the information on the subject covered or all the information available to the authors and/or publisher. Internet addresses, trade, firm, corporation, or company names, product names, and other resources are provided for informational purposes only and do not constitute endorsement by the authors or publisher.
While every effort has been made to assure the accuracy of this book, there may be mistakes in content and typography. Therefore, this book should be used as a general introduction to the subject matter covered and not as the ultimate source of information on ethanol, biofuels, and other subjects covered.
This book is written for informational and entertainment purposes only. The authors and Prairie Oak Publishing accept neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to loss, risk, or damage caused or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly, by information in this book.If you do not want to be bound by the disclaimer printed above, you may return this book to the publisher for a full refund.
Contents
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Disclaimer
Introduction
1. A Brief History of Ethanol Fuel
Lamp Fuel and the First Oil Well
Internal Combustion and the First Fuel Alcohol Movement
Chemurgy and the Second Fuel Alcohol Movement
Oil Embargoes and the Third Fuel Alcohol Movement
The Return of Cheap Oil
The End of Cheap Oil & the Rise of Ethanol
2. Will Cheap Oil Return?
Easy Energy
The Rise and Fall of Big Oil
The Search for “Easy Oil”
Geopolitical Considerations
Growing World Oil Consumption
How Long will Oil Production Grow?
3. Economic and Security Benefits
Economic Impact of Biorefineries
Tax Incentives for Ethanol and Oil
Farm Subsidies
Growing Oil Imports
The Hidden Cost of Imported Oil
Hurricane Vulnerability
Cellulosic Diversification
4. Environmental Impact
Measuring Environmental Impact
Greenhouse Gases
Brazilian Ethanol
Groundwater Pollution
Air Pollution
Feedstock Sourcing
5. E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Running on E10
E10 Price and Fuel Economy
E10 Availability
Running on E85
Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Purchasing a Flex-Fuel Vehicle
E85 Availability
E85 Cost and Fuel Economy
6. Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
Fuel Economy on E10
Improving Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Ethanol and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Ethanol Boosting with Direct Injection
Ethanol, Hydrogen, and Fuel Cells
Hydrated Ethanol
7. Food, Farming, and Land Use
Food Prices
Food AND Fuel from Corn
Ethanol and World Hunger
Fossil Fuels and Agriculture
Sustainable Farming
Land Use Issues
Diversifying Energy Crops
High-Diversity Grassland
Enhancing Food Production with Energy Farming
8. Ethanol Production
New Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sugar Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sweet Sorghum
Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichokes
Ethanol from Food Waste
On-Farm Ethanol from Waste Fruit
Ethanol from Beets
Ethanol from Corn Kernels
Adding Value to Coproducts
Ethanol from Field Peas
Ethanol from Grain Sorghum, Wheat, and Barley
Reducing Process Fuel Use
Reducing Water Use
Alternative Process Fuels
Combined Heat and Power
Ethanol-Livestock Integration
Small-Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol Transportation & Pipeline Issues
Butanol: The Other Alcohol
9. Cellulosic Ethanol
Commercializing Cellulosic Production
Cellulosic Conversion Technologies
Biochemical Methods
Thermochemical Methods
Biogas as a Transportation Fuel
Waste & Coproduct Feedstocks
Agricultural Residue Feedstocks
Dedicated Cellulosic Energy Crops
A Sticky Coproduct
Harvest and Transportation of Feedstocks
The Pyrolysis Route to Cellulosic Ethanol
Regional Biomass Processing Centers
Pipeline Transportation of Corn Stover Silage
Economics of Cellulosic Ethanol
How Much Ethanol Can We Make?
10. Energy Balance: Is Ethanol Renewable?
All BTU’s are Not the Same
Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio
Petroleum Replacement Ratio
Rating Cellulosic Ethanol
Comparing Ethanol and Gasoline
Fuel Economy and Energy Balance
Variables and Trends
11. Facing our Energy Future
Balancing our Energy Budget
Ethanol Questions and Answers
Selected Resources/Bibliography
Glossary
Index
Figures
1-1. Fuel Ethanol Production, 1982–2006
2-1. U.S. Crude Oil Spot Price, 1995–2007
2-2. Percentage of Proved World Oil Reserves by Region, 2005
2-3. World Oil Consumption, 1985–2005
3-1. Estimated Revenue Loss from Tax Incentives for Petroleum and Ethanol
5-1. Same location U.S. National Average Retail Gasoline and E85 Prices, 2006-2007
5-2. Break-even Prices for Gasoline Alternatives Based on Fuel Economy Reduction
6-1. Change in Fuel Economy Using E10 Relative to Ethanol-free Gasoline
7-1. Average Price Paid U.S. Farmers per Bushel of Corn, 1980-2007
7-2. Corn Planted Since 1992 per Market Year
8-1. Ethanol Production Paths
8-2. Ethanol Production by Feedstock, 2006
8-3. Estimated Ethanol Yield by Feedstock
8-4. Estimated Production Cost by Feedstock
8-5. Ethanol Production from Corn Kernels
8-6. Conventional vs. Combined Heat & Power
9-1. The Biochemical Cellulosic Production Process
9-2. Annual Biomass Potential from U.S. Forests and Agriculture
10-1. Calculating Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
10-2. Calculating Petroleum Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
10-3. Energy Balance Ratios for Ethanol and Gasoline
10-4. U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price, 1996–2007
Acknowledgements
We extend our thanks and admiration to the farmers, entrepreneurs, politicians, journalists, investors, scientists, engineers, and others striving to make ethanol production and use more efficient and sustainable. This book is about the technologies making ethanol make sense, yet these technologies are reflections of the dreams, ingenuity, foresight, and hard work of many people, past and present.
Thanks to Ed Malewski for composing a poem for this book. Thanks also to those who provided comments, corrections, testimonials, and encouragement. Thanks especially to friends and family members. Their support and advice is indispensable.
Disclaimer
This book is designed to provide accurate information about the subject matter covered and is sold with the understanding that the publisher and authors are not providing legal, accounting, investment guidance, or other professional services. This book is not intended to provide all the information on the subject covered or all the information available to the authors and/or publisher. Internet addresses, trade, firm, corporation, or company names, product names, and other resources are provided for informational purposes only and do not constitute endorsement by the authors or publisher.
While every effort has been made to assure the accuracy of this book, there may be mistakes in content and typography. Therefore, this book should be used as a general introduction to the subject matter covered and not as the ultimate source of information on ethanol, biofuels, and other subjects covered.
This book is written for informational and entertainment purposes only. The authors and Prairie Oak Publishing accept neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to loss, risk, or damage caused or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly, by information in this book.If you do not want to be bound by the disclaimer printed above, you may return this book to the publisher for a full refund.
1: A Brief History of Ethanol
The following excerpt is from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
A Brief History of Ethanol
Internal Combustion and the First Fuel Alcohol Movement
While alcohol fuel was stymied by U.S. taxes in the middle of the 19th century, the same was not true in Europe. In 1860, German engineer Nikolas Otto used alcohol as the fuel for one of his “Otto Cycle” combustion engines.[i] Toward the end of the 1800’s, alcohol-fueled engines enjoyed a period of ascendancy in Europe as a response to worries over the long-term stability of petroleum supplies.[ii]
Back in North America, farmers were beginning to exploit the deep, rich soil of the Great Plains. Production spikes caused commodity prices to fall, a situation that would often plague America’s farmers. Despite the steep tax on alcohol, Henry Ford designed his first car, the Quadricycle, to run on pure ethanol in the 1896.[iii] The majority of Americans were farmers at the turn of the century, giving them strong political influence. With the help of President Theodore Roosevelt, the Civil War era alcohol tax was finally ended in 1906.[iv] The way was clear for America’s first farmer-driven fuel alcohol movement.
In 1908, Henry Ford equipped his “Model T” with engines capable of running on ethanol, gasoline, or a combination of the two.[v] The ability to use multiple fuels would later be termed “flex-fuel.” Other manufacturers made provisions for alcohol fuel as well. Despite the best efforts of power alcohol enthusiasts, however, alcohol was never able to seriously challenge less expensive gasoline as the dominant transportation fuel.
Around 1917 to 1918, Word War I triggered a surge in demand for industrial alcohol. Production reached 50–60 million gallons per year, marking the high point of America’s first fuel alcohol movement.[vi] After the war, proponents continued to preach the advantages of alcohol fuel, but demand dropped as inexpensive fossil fuels once again dominated the marketplace.
Around this time, ethanol missed out on a huge opportunity. Automotive engineers were looking for gasoline additives that would prevent engine knock at higher compression ratios for better fuel economy. Ethyl alcohol (today referred to as ethanol), already well known as a knock inhibitor, was a possible choice. It was discovered, however, that tetraethyl lead could also do the job. Radford University professor Bill Kovarik discovered documentation from the 1920’s indicating tetraethyl lead was originally intended as a stopgap solution until ethyl alcohol production could be ramped up. Tetraethyl lead became the dominant anti-knock additive for decades. Eventually, tetraethyl lead was recognized as a serious health hazard. In 1986, it was finally banned as a fuel additive.[vii] After World War I, prohibition dashed hopes for maintaining a robust fuel alcohol industry. Beginning in 1920, the 18th amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes.”[viii] It was still legal to manufacture and use alcohol for fuel, but doing so must have attracted close scrutiny from authorities. Also, fuel alcohol had to be mixed with petroleum so it could not be used as a beverage.[ix] This requirement is still in effect today. Prohibition was eventually repealed by the ratification of the 21st amendment in 1933, marking a new period of opportunity for fuel alcohol.[x]
See chapter 1 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Lamp Fuel and the First Oil Well
Chemurgy and the Second Fuel Alcohol Movement
Oil Embargoes and the Third Fuel Alcohol Movement
The Return of Cheap Oil
The End of Cheap Oil & the Rise of Ethanol
Figure 1-1. Fuel Ethanol Production, 1982–2006
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
Direct from Prairie Oak Publishing
Information about ordering from Amazon
Notes
[i]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[ii]. William Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering and the Fuel of the Future,” Automotive History Review 32 (Spring 1998): 7–27. Reproduced on the Web at http://www.radford.edu/~wkovarik/papers/fuel.html.
[iii]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[iv]. Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering.”
[v]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[vi]. Ibid.
[vii]. Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering.”
[viii]. The Constitution of The United States, The National Archives, http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/
charters/constitution_amendments_11-27.html.
[ix]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol History,” Energy Kid’s Page, http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/ethanol.html.
[x]. The Constitution of The United States, The National Archives.
A Brief History of Ethanol
Internal Combustion and the First Fuel Alcohol Movement
While alcohol fuel was stymied by U.S. taxes in the middle of the 19th century, the same was not true in Europe. In 1860, German engineer Nikolas Otto used alcohol as the fuel for one of his “Otto Cycle” combustion engines.[i] Toward the end of the 1800’s, alcohol-fueled engines enjoyed a period of ascendancy in Europe as a response to worries over the long-term stability of petroleum supplies.[ii]
Back in North America, farmers were beginning to exploit the deep, rich soil of the Great Plains. Production spikes caused commodity prices to fall, a situation that would often plague America’s farmers. Despite the steep tax on alcohol, Henry Ford designed his first car, the Quadricycle, to run on pure ethanol in the 1896.[iii] The majority of Americans were farmers at the turn of the century, giving them strong political influence. With the help of President Theodore Roosevelt, the Civil War era alcohol tax was finally ended in 1906.[iv] The way was clear for America’s first farmer-driven fuel alcohol movement.
In 1908, Henry Ford equipped his “Model T” with engines capable of running on ethanol, gasoline, or a combination of the two.[v] The ability to use multiple fuels would later be termed “flex-fuel.” Other manufacturers made provisions for alcohol fuel as well. Despite the best efforts of power alcohol enthusiasts, however, alcohol was never able to seriously challenge less expensive gasoline as the dominant transportation fuel.
Around 1917 to 1918, Word War I triggered a surge in demand for industrial alcohol. Production reached 50–60 million gallons per year, marking the high point of America’s first fuel alcohol movement.[vi] After the war, proponents continued to preach the advantages of alcohol fuel, but demand dropped as inexpensive fossil fuels once again dominated the marketplace.
Around this time, ethanol missed out on a huge opportunity. Automotive engineers were looking for gasoline additives that would prevent engine knock at higher compression ratios for better fuel economy. Ethyl alcohol (today referred to as ethanol), already well known as a knock inhibitor, was a possible choice. It was discovered, however, that tetraethyl lead could also do the job. Radford University professor Bill Kovarik discovered documentation from the 1920’s indicating tetraethyl lead was originally intended as a stopgap solution until ethyl alcohol production could be ramped up. Tetraethyl lead became the dominant anti-knock additive for decades. Eventually, tetraethyl lead was recognized as a serious health hazard. In 1986, it was finally banned as a fuel additive.[vii] After World War I, prohibition dashed hopes for maintaining a robust fuel alcohol industry. Beginning in 1920, the 18th amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes.”[viii] It was still legal to manufacture and use alcohol for fuel, but doing so must have attracted close scrutiny from authorities. Also, fuel alcohol had to be mixed with petroleum so it could not be used as a beverage.[ix] This requirement is still in effect today. Prohibition was eventually repealed by the ratification of the 21st amendment in 1933, marking a new period of opportunity for fuel alcohol.[x]
See chapter 1 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Lamp Fuel and the First Oil Well
Chemurgy and the Second Fuel Alcohol Movement
Oil Embargoes and the Third Fuel Alcohol Movement
The Return of Cheap Oil
The End of Cheap Oil & the Rise of Ethanol
Figure 1-1. Fuel Ethanol Production, 1982–2006
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Notes
[i]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[ii]. William Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering and the Fuel of the Future,” Automotive History Review 32 (Spring 1998): 7–27. Reproduced on the Web at http://www.radford.edu/~wkovarik/papers/fuel.html.
[iii]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[iv]. Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering.”
[v]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol Timeline.”
[vi]. Ibid.
[vii]. Kovarik, “Henry Ford, Charles F. Kettering.”
[viii]. The Constitution of The United States, The National Archives, http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/
charters/constitution_amendments_11-27.html.
[ix]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Ethanol History,” Energy Kid’s Page, http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/ethanol.html.
[x]. The Constitution of The United States, The National Archives.
2: Will Cheap Oil Return?
The following excerpt is from chapter 2 of Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Will Cheap Oil Return?
Oil price declines of the 1980’s put a damper on many renewable energy initiatives. Through the late 1980’s and 1990’s, oil was so cheap that ethanol and other biofuels found little room for growth. Oil has been more expensive recently, but will this last?
We believe a long-term collapse in oil prices is unlikely this century. Trillions of barrels of oil remain to be tapped, but these barrels will be more difficult to access and therefore more expensive. This should allow sustainable biofuels to compete more successfully. Shorter duration declines in oil prices are likely, however, and renewable energy industries need to be prepared for them. In addition, government policies should be designed to help renewable energy survive slumps in energy prices.
Easy Energy
The era of cheap oil was made possible by solar energy, photosynthesis, geologic processes, and time. The energy potential in living matter, originally spread through huge spans of time and space, was concentrated deep under the earth’s surface in the form of fossil fuels. This concentration of energy, resulting in a high energy density, is what makes petroleum so useful.
With ideal conditions, the energy required to extract crude oil is minimal in comparison to its energy potential. In other words, oil can have a very good energy returned on energy invested (EROEI). The earth itself has done the heavy lifting for us. But the earth works at a slow pace. We are cashing in on an investment made over millions of years. The problem is, easily exploited oil reserves are steadily declining. On average, the extraction of remaining oil reserves will result in a less favorable EROEI. With the production of biofuels, we attempt to densify organic biomass more quickly. Through the application of modern technology in cooperation with natural processes, it is possible to optimize the sustainable densification of plant-derived energy into biofuels suitable for existing automobiles. (continued below)
The Search for “Easy Oil”
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, only 63% of world crude oil and natural gas liquids production was replaced by new reserves from 2003 to 2005.[i] The area of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe was the only region where new reserves exceeded production.
Petroleum varies in quality. The vast majority used over the past century has been relatively light and sweet—easily refined into gasoline and other products. Recently, oil companies have turned to sour crudes high in sulfur as well as heavy, thick crudes that in some cases, such as the Canadian tar sands, do not flow until heated. The fact that companies are beginning to tap these unconventional reserves shows that conventional reserves are insufficient. Market forces compel companies to produce oil at the least possible expense. That is why lower quality, harder to produce oil is generally left in place until easily accessible reserves run low. A 2000 study by the U.S. Geological Survey identified possible areas of new oil production, but most are in areas with high production costs or environmental concerns. Untapped reserves are thought to exist in the high Arctic, the coasts of Greenland, and the ultra-deep waters off the coasts of North America, South America, Africa, and Asia.
See chapter 2 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
The Rise and Fall of Big Oil
Geopolitical Considerations
Growing World Oil Consumption
How Long will Oil Production Grow?
Figure 2-1. U.S. Crude Oil Spot Price, 1995–2007
Figure 2-2. Percentage of Proved World Oil Reserves by Region, 2005
Figure 2-3. World Oil Consumption, 1985–2005
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Note
[i]. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Performance Profiles of Major Energy Producers 2005, http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/perfpro/tab08.htm.
3: Economic and Security Benefits
The following excerpt is from chapter 3 of Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Economic and Security Benefits
For too long, the price farmers received for their crops did not even cover the cost of production. Until recently, grain prices remained flat while the cost of other goods steadily rose. Thanks in part to biofuel production, grain prices are finally reaching the point where farmers and rural economies can survive without crop subsidies.
Farm Subsidies
With the rising price of corn in recent years, ethanol tax incentives are offset by lower farm subsidy payments. Under terms of a farm bill in effect from 2002 to 2007, Counter-cyclical payments for U.S. corn crops have gone from over 905 million dollars per year in 2005 to nothing in 2007 (USDA forecast).[i] Counter-cyclical payments are based on market prices. The price of corn is finally above the level that triggers counter-cyclical payments, thanks in large part to demand from ethanol producers.
See chapter 3 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Economic Impact of Biorefineries
Tax Incentives for Ethanol and Oil
Growing Oil Imports
The Hidden Cost of Imported Oil
Hurricane Vulnerability
Cellulosic Diversification
Figure 3-1. Estimated Revenue Loss from Tax Incentives for Petroleum and Ethanol
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Note
[i]. USDA Economic Research Service, Farm Income and Costs: 2007 Farm Sector Income Forecast, February 14, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/; USDA, “Direct & Counter-cyclical Program,” Farm Bill Forum Comment Summary & Background, http://www.usda.gov/.
Economic and Security Benefits
For too long, the price farmers received for their crops did not even cover the cost of production. Until recently, grain prices remained flat while the cost of other goods steadily rose. Thanks in part to biofuel production, grain prices are finally reaching the point where farmers and rural economies can survive without crop subsidies.
Farm Subsidies
With the rising price of corn in recent years, ethanol tax incentives are offset by lower farm subsidy payments. Under terms of a farm bill in effect from 2002 to 2007, Counter-cyclical payments for U.S. corn crops have gone from over 905 million dollars per year in 2005 to nothing in 2007 (USDA forecast).[i] Counter-cyclical payments are based on market prices. The price of corn is finally above the level that triggers counter-cyclical payments, thanks in large part to demand from ethanol producers.
See chapter 3 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Economic Impact of Biorefineries
Tax Incentives for Ethanol and Oil
Growing Oil Imports
The Hidden Cost of Imported Oil
Hurricane Vulnerability
Cellulosic Diversification
Figure 3-1. Estimated Revenue Loss from Tax Incentives for Petroleum and Ethanol
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
Click here to order directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
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Note
[i]. USDA Economic Research Service, Farm Income and Costs: 2007 Farm Sector Income Forecast, February 14, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/; USDA, “Direct & Counter-cyclical Program,” Farm Bill Forum Comment Summary & Background, http://www.usda.gov/.
4: Environmental Impact
The fowllowing is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Environmental Impact
An energy system is unsustainable if it destroys our ecosystem. Experts often disagree about environmental impacts, perhaps because they are looking at different aspects of the issue. An examination of a broad range of issues shows that ethanol fuel is neither the one perfect solution (there is no such thing) nor a dead end. (continued below)
Measuring Environmental Impact
Practically any human activity impacts the environment in some way. Making and using ethanol is no exception. Ethanol can be considered beneficial if it does less damage than the fuel it replaces. Ethanol primarily replaces petroleum-derived gasoline in today’s North American transportation system. When we consider ethanol’s environmental impact, we must do so in comparison to gasoline. We need to begin with some assumptions established elsewhere in this book:
1. Over time, fossil fuel prices will probably remain high (see Chapter 2).
2. Ethanol enjoys a better net energy balance than gasoline (see Chapter 10).
High fossil fuel prices will affect the way we grow and refine ethanol feedstocks for the better. The increasing cost of fossil fuel-based herbicides, fertilizers, and process fuels creates a market force to minimize their use. The resulting improvement in energy balance and decrease in harmful chemical use will lessen environmental damage from ethanol.
Most scientists believe we derive more energy value from the use of ethanol than could be derived from the fossil fuels used in its production. Of thirteen major studies on the subject completed between 1998 and 2005, nine showed a positive energy balance for corn ethanol.[i] Ethanol may perform better than the energy balance studies indicate. They generally assume a lower fuel economy for ethanol based on its lower energy content. However, some car models already on North American roads actually suffer little or no loss in fuel economy on E10 (10% ethanol).[ii]
The numbers look even better for ethanol’s energy balance when compared to gasoline. Gasoline has a decidedly negative energy balance because of the fossil fuels required for extracting, transporting, and refining crude oil. The University of Chicago’s Argonne National Laboratory estimates gasoline has a negative 25% energy balance, while corn ethanol enjoys a positive energy balance of more than 25%.[iii] Ethanol’s energy balance has steadily improved over the years.[iv] This trend means less fossil fuel use and less environmental impact related to emissions, chemical contamination, and global warming. On the other hand, technology for refining gasoline is older and less likely to show as much improvement in efficiency.
See chapter 4 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Greenhouse Gases
Brazilian Ethanol
Groundwater Pollution
Air Pollution
Feedstock Sourcing
Options for ordering Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. Michael Wang, “The Debate on Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impacts of Fuel Ethanol” University of Chicago Argonne National Laboratory, 2005, 24.
[ii]. KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998); American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
[iii]. Wang, “The Debate on Energy,” 23.
[iv]. Ibid., 24.
Environmental Impact
An energy system is unsustainable if it destroys our ecosystem. Experts often disagree about environmental impacts, perhaps because they are looking at different aspects of the issue. An examination of a broad range of issues shows that ethanol fuel is neither the one perfect solution (there is no such thing) nor a dead end. (continued below)
Measuring Environmental Impact
Practically any human activity impacts the environment in some way. Making and using ethanol is no exception. Ethanol can be considered beneficial if it does less damage than the fuel it replaces. Ethanol primarily replaces petroleum-derived gasoline in today’s North American transportation system. When we consider ethanol’s environmental impact, we must do so in comparison to gasoline. We need to begin with some assumptions established elsewhere in this book:
1. Over time, fossil fuel prices will probably remain high (see Chapter 2).
2. Ethanol enjoys a better net energy balance than gasoline (see Chapter 10).
High fossil fuel prices will affect the way we grow and refine ethanol feedstocks for the better. The increasing cost of fossil fuel-based herbicides, fertilizers, and process fuels creates a market force to minimize their use. The resulting improvement in energy balance and decrease in harmful chemical use will lessen environmental damage from ethanol.
Most scientists believe we derive more energy value from the use of ethanol than could be derived from the fossil fuels used in its production. Of thirteen major studies on the subject completed between 1998 and 2005, nine showed a positive energy balance for corn ethanol.[i] Ethanol may perform better than the energy balance studies indicate. They generally assume a lower fuel economy for ethanol based on its lower energy content. However, some car models already on North American roads actually suffer little or no loss in fuel economy on E10 (10% ethanol).[ii]
The numbers look even better for ethanol’s energy balance when compared to gasoline. Gasoline has a decidedly negative energy balance because of the fossil fuels required for extracting, transporting, and refining crude oil. The University of Chicago’s Argonne National Laboratory estimates gasoline has a negative 25% energy balance, while corn ethanol enjoys a positive energy balance of more than 25%.[iii] Ethanol’s energy balance has steadily improved over the years.[iv] This trend means less fossil fuel use and less environmental impact related to emissions, chemical contamination, and global warming. On the other hand, technology for refining gasoline is older and less likely to show as much improvement in efficiency.
See chapter 4 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
Greenhouse Gases
Brazilian Ethanol
Groundwater Pollution
Air Pollution
Feedstock Sourcing
Options for ordering Sustainable Ethanol include:
Click here for ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here for ordering information at Amazon
Notes
[i]. Michael Wang, “The Debate on Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impacts of Fuel Ethanol” University of Chicago Argonne National Laboratory, 2005, 24.
[ii]. KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998); American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
[iii]. Wang, “The Debate on Energy,” 23.
[iv]. Ibid., 24.
5: E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
The following is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
You might already be using ethanol in your car. E10 (10% ethanol) is widely available and approved by automobile makers. You might even be driving a vehicle that can burn up to 85% ethanol (E85). E85 is formulated for flex-fuel vehicles. These vehicles look the same as other cars, trucks, and vans, but run perfectly on anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol.
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or fuel alcohol, is a potent version of drinking alcohol with the molecular formula CH3CH2OH. The federal government requires fuel alcohol to be denatured by adding up to 5% gasoline or other denaturant, “poisoning” the brew to prevent human consumption.[i]
The “E” in E10 and E85 stands for ethanol, while the numbers indicate ethanol percentage. E10 is 10% denatured ethanol and 90% gasoline. E85 is 85% denatured ethanol and 15% gasoline. Because the ethanol is denatured, E85 and E10 actually have slightly less than 85% or 10% ethanol content. Ethanol percentage also varies on a seasonal basis. E85 can contain as little as 75% denatured ethanol during the winter to help with cold weather starting.[ii]
(continued below)
E10 Price and Fuel Economy
Due to tax breaks and sometimes lower production costs, ethanol is usually less expensive than gasoline. Not only is ethanol less expensive, but it also adds 2.5–3 octane points (a measure of engine knock resistance[xi]) to E10 gasoline.[xii] Ethanol can be an ingredient in low octane gasoline by using a low octane blendstock (base gasoline). More often, though, ethanol is used in higher-octane gasolines (mid-grade or premium).
During 2005, 2–4 cents was the normal discount for E10 according to Ron Lamberty of the American Coalition for Ethanol.[xiii] In Missouri during 2007, E10 could be had for as much as 10 cents less per gallon than the least expensive ethanol-free gasoline. Since E10 causes little or no loss in fuel economy in many vehicles, a lower price can mean actual savings. At the 10% level, the favorable combustion properties of ethanol more or less compensate for its lower energy density. A 1998 Study by the U.S. EPA showed an average 1.64% gain in miles per gallon for E10 as compared to ethanol-free gasoline. Tests were performed at 0°F and 75°F on 11 vehicles, model years 1977 to 1994.[xiv] The American Coalition for Ethanol conducted a fuel economy study of three passenger cars, model year 2005. They detected an average 1.47% lower fuel economy for E10 as compared to unleaded gasoline without ethanol.[xv] This translates to an average 0.41 fewer miles per gallon—less reduction than you would expect based on energy density alone.
See chapter 5 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Running on E10
E10 Availability
Running on E85
Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Purchasing a Flex-Fuel Vehicle
E85 Availability
E85 Cost and Fuel Economy
Figure 5-1. Same location U.S. National Average Retail Gasoline and E85 Prices, 2006-2007
Figure 5-2. Break-even Prices for Gasoline Alternatives Based on FuelEconomy Reduction
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory & National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, Handbook for Handling, Storing, and Dispensing E85, 2002, 2.
[ii]. Keith Reid, “Alcohol at the Pump,” National Petroleum News, (August 2005): 40.
[xi]. John D. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988), 852.
[xii]. Reynolds, Gasoline Ethanol Blends, 3.
[xiii]. Nate Jenkins, “Buying E10 May Not Always Save Money,” Lincoln Star Journal, October 14, 2005.
[xiv]. Based on tests reported by KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998).
[xv]. Based on tests by the American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
You might already be using ethanol in your car. E10 (10% ethanol) is widely available and approved by automobile makers. You might even be driving a vehicle that can burn up to 85% ethanol (E85). E85 is formulated for flex-fuel vehicles. These vehicles look the same as other cars, trucks, and vans, but run perfectly on anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol.
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol or fuel alcohol, is a potent version of drinking alcohol with the molecular formula CH3CH2OH. The federal government requires fuel alcohol to be denatured by adding up to 5% gasoline or other denaturant, “poisoning” the brew to prevent human consumption.[i]
The “E” in E10 and E85 stands for ethanol, while the numbers indicate ethanol percentage. E10 is 10% denatured ethanol and 90% gasoline. E85 is 85% denatured ethanol and 15% gasoline. Because the ethanol is denatured, E85 and E10 actually have slightly less than 85% or 10% ethanol content. Ethanol percentage also varies on a seasonal basis. E85 can contain as little as 75% denatured ethanol during the winter to help with cold weather starting.[ii]
(continued below)
E10 Price and Fuel Economy
Due to tax breaks and sometimes lower production costs, ethanol is usually less expensive than gasoline. Not only is ethanol less expensive, but it also adds 2.5–3 octane points (a measure of engine knock resistance[xi]) to E10 gasoline.[xii] Ethanol can be an ingredient in low octane gasoline by using a low octane blendstock (base gasoline). More often, though, ethanol is used in higher-octane gasolines (mid-grade or premium).
During 2005, 2–4 cents was the normal discount for E10 according to Ron Lamberty of the American Coalition for Ethanol.[xiii] In Missouri during 2007, E10 could be had for as much as 10 cents less per gallon than the least expensive ethanol-free gasoline. Since E10 causes little or no loss in fuel economy in many vehicles, a lower price can mean actual savings. At the 10% level, the favorable combustion properties of ethanol more or less compensate for its lower energy density. A 1998 Study by the U.S. EPA showed an average 1.64% gain in miles per gallon for E10 as compared to ethanol-free gasoline. Tests were performed at 0°F and 75°F on 11 vehicles, model years 1977 to 1994.[xiv] The American Coalition for Ethanol conducted a fuel economy study of three passenger cars, model year 2005. They detected an average 1.47% lower fuel economy for E10 as compared to unleaded gasoline without ethanol.[xv] This translates to an average 0.41 fewer miles per gallon—less reduction than you would expect based on energy density alone.
See chapter 5 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Running on E10
E10 Availability
Running on E85
Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Purchasing a Flex-Fuel Vehicle
E85 Availability
E85 Cost and Fuel Economy
Figure 5-1. Same location U.S. National Average Retail Gasoline and E85 Prices, 2006-2007
Figure 5-2. Break-even Prices for Gasoline Alternatives Based on FuelEconomy Reduction
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory & National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition, Handbook for Handling, Storing, and Dispensing E85, 2002, 2.
[ii]. Keith Reid, “Alcohol at the Pump,” National Petroleum News, (August 2005): 40.
[xi]. John D. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988), 852.
[xii]. Reynolds, Gasoline Ethanol Blends, 3.
[xiii]. Nate Jenkins, “Buying E10 May Not Always Save Money,” Lincoln Star Journal, October 14, 2005.
[xiv]. Based on tests reported by KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998).
[xv]. Based on tests by the American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
6: Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
The following is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
One criticism of ethanol is that it replaces only a small portion of our gasoline use. But this is a poor reason to abandon ethanol. It would make no more sense than abandoning wind power because it can’t supply all our electricity. It is, however, a reason to work on conservation and energy efficiency just as intently as production. We use more energy than necessary, primarily because petroleum has historically been inexpensive. As cheap oil becomes scarce, we must find ways to curtail our use of transportation fuels.
Some ethanol critics cite its poor fuel economy compared to gasoline. Actually, ethanol can be an ally in energy conservation and better fuel economy. Preliminary studies show E10 already achieves better fuel economy than ethanol-free gasoline in some vehicles. E85 exhibits reduced fuel economy in today’s flex fuel vehicles, but critics often fail to acknowledge this situation can improve. Manufacturers could optimize vehicles for better fuel economy on E10 and E85. This would reduce our cost per mile driven. It would also improve ethanol’s energy balance, in turn benefiting our environment, energy security, and trade balance.
Ethanol’s energy density is low compared to gasoline, but energy density is not the only property affecting fuel economy. We must also consider how efficiently a vehicle uses energy. No technology is capable of converting 100% of available energy into useful work. Energy is lost to friction and heat. But vehicles optimized for ethanol are able to direct a greater percentage of available energy toward turning the wheels, offsetting lower energy content. This is possible thanks to ethanol’s high octane rating and other beneficial combustion properties. Ethanol optimization technologies already exist. Full implementation of these technologies could yield huge benefits through better fuel economy.
In these times of high fuel prices, we often hear of potential solutions such as hybrid vehicles, biofuels, hydrogen, and fuel cells. We need to resist the temptation to see these as competing alternatives. It is tantalizing to think some single “silver bullet” technology will solve all our energy problems. Realistically speaking, if we reject every energy alternative that can’t single-handedly replace oil, we will have nothing left. We need many different alternative fuels and most importantly, we need to combine fuels and technologies for maximum efficiency. Biofuels such as ethanol can be a valuable component of a highly efficient transportation system.
(continued below)
Fuel Economy on E10
E10 (10% denatured ethanol and 80% gasoline) works in nearly all gasoline-burning vehicles. In Chapter 5, we introduced two studies indicating little or no reduction in fuel economy on average for E10 as compared to ethanol-free gasoline.[i] The lower BTU content of E10 does not necessarily lead to worse fuel economy. Some cars achieved significantly better fuel economy on E10. Considering most North American ethanol use is currently in the form of E10, its favorable fuel economy redounds to the benefit of ethanol’s overall energy balance and cost effectiveness in our transportation system. Can fuel economy on E10 be improved still more? In both the EPA and American Coalition for Ethanol studies, fuel economy varied considerably among different car models. Some variability would be expected with real world conditions and among different drivers. These studies, however, were done under controlled conditions, indicating some real differences in the efficiency with which different vehicles burn E10.
Simply making E10 performance data available for new and used cars would allow motorists to make buying decisions based on E10 fuel economy. For used cars, the data might not be consistent because differing levels of engine deposits or other use factors might make a difference, but some trend lines might appear even there. New car performance on E10 should be more consistent and measurable.
See chapter 6 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Improving Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Ethanol and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Ethanol Boosting with Direct Injection
Ethanol, Hydrogen, and Fuel Cells
Hydrated Ethanol
Figure 6-1. Change in Fuel Economy Using E10 Relative to Ethanol-free Gasoline
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998); American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
Improving Fuel Economy on Ethanol
One criticism of ethanol is that it replaces only a small portion of our gasoline use. But this is a poor reason to abandon ethanol. It would make no more sense than abandoning wind power because it can’t supply all our electricity. It is, however, a reason to work on conservation and energy efficiency just as intently as production. We use more energy than necessary, primarily because petroleum has historically been inexpensive. As cheap oil becomes scarce, we must find ways to curtail our use of transportation fuels.
Some ethanol critics cite its poor fuel economy compared to gasoline. Actually, ethanol can be an ally in energy conservation and better fuel economy. Preliminary studies show E10 already achieves better fuel economy than ethanol-free gasoline in some vehicles. E85 exhibits reduced fuel economy in today’s flex fuel vehicles, but critics often fail to acknowledge this situation can improve. Manufacturers could optimize vehicles for better fuel economy on E10 and E85. This would reduce our cost per mile driven. It would also improve ethanol’s energy balance, in turn benefiting our environment, energy security, and trade balance.
Ethanol’s energy density is low compared to gasoline, but energy density is not the only property affecting fuel economy. We must also consider how efficiently a vehicle uses energy. No technology is capable of converting 100% of available energy into useful work. Energy is lost to friction and heat. But vehicles optimized for ethanol are able to direct a greater percentage of available energy toward turning the wheels, offsetting lower energy content. This is possible thanks to ethanol’s high octane rating and other beneficial combustion properties. Ethanol optimization technologies already exist. Full implementation of these technologies could yield huge benefits through better fuel economy.
In these times of high fuel prices, we often hear of potential solutions such as hybrid vehicles, biofuels, hydrogen, and fuel cells. We need to resist the temptation to see these as competing alternatives. It is tantalizing to think some single “silver bullet” technology will solve all our energy problems. Realistically speaking, if we reject every energy alternative that can’t single-handedly replace oil, we will have nothing left. We need many different alternative fuels and most importantly, we need to combine fuels and technologies for maximum efficiency. Biofuels such as ethanol can be a valuable component of a highly efficient transportation system.
(continued below)
Fuel Economy on E10
E10 (10% denatured ethanol and 80% gasoline) works in nearly all gasoline-burning vehicles. In Chapter 5, we introduced two studies indicating little or no reduction in fuel economy on average for E10 as compared to ethanol-free gasoline.[i] The lower BTU content of E10 does not necessarily lead to worse fuel economy. Some cars achieved significantly better fuel economy on E10. Considering most North American ethanol use is currently in the form of E10, its favorable fuel economy redounds to the benefit of ethanol’s overall energy balance and cost effectiveness in our transportation system. Can fuel economy on E10 be improved still more? In both the EPA and American Coalition for Ethanol studies, fuel economy varied considerably among different car models. Some variability would be expected with real world conditions and among different drivers. These studies, however, were done under controlled conditions, indicating some real differences in the efficiency with which different vehicles burn E10.
Simply making E10 performance data available for new and used cars would allow motorists to make buying decisions based on E10 fuel economy. For used cars, the data might not be consistent because differing levels of engine deposits or other use factors might make a difference, but some trend lines might appear even there. New car performance on E10 should be more consistent and measurable.
See chapter 6 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Improving Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Ethanol and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Ethanol Boosting with Direct Injection
Ethanol, Hydrogen, and Fuel Cells
Hydrated Ethanol
Figure 6-1. Change in Fuel Economy Using E10 Relative to Ethanol-free Gasoline
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Notes
[i]. KT Knapp, FD Stump, & SB Tejada, “The Effect of Fuel on the Emissions of Vehicles over a Wide Range of Temperatures,” Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 43 (July 1998); American Coalition for Ethanol, Fuel Economy Study, 2005, http://www.ethanol.org/documents/ACEFuelEconomyStudy.pdf.
7: Food, Farming, and Land Use
The following is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Food, Farming, and Land Use
We count on agriculture for a reliable and affordable food supply. American farmers have succeeded in this mission. In fact, farmers have been plagued with surplus production and low prices in recent decades. In 2005, farmers were being paid only around $2.00 per bushel of corn even though about 14% of the crop was put through ethanol biorefineries (USDA ERS data). At these incredibly low prices, it was impossible for most corn farmers to make a profit without government subsidies. While most other commodities rise in line with inflation, grain prices have remained low.
Prices are finally rising, but corn is still a bargain compared to non-food commodities. From the beginning, a major goal of the fuel ethanol movement was higher crop prices so farmers could make a living without government subsidies. That is exactly what is happening.
Growing up in America’s Corn Belt during the 1980’s, your authors witnessed mountains of corn left in the open many years because large crops overwhelmed grain storage capacity. Grain prices fell, profits evaporated, and many farmers lost land that had been in their families for generations. A few farmers decided it was time to bring back a fuel ethanol industry that could make use of surplus grain. Their hard work eventually paid off. The fuel ethanol industry is thriving while our food supply remains plentiful and relatively inexpensive. But how much can we expect from the land? Will energy production endanger our food supply? Other concerns are even more pressing. The rising price of fossil fuels threatens the profitability of farms reliant on petroleum-derived chemical fertilizers and pesticides. These challenges present opportunities for farmers. Integrated production of food, fuel, and fiber using sustainable farming methods can provide solutions for food and energy security while also improving farm profits and our environment.
(continued below)
Food Prices
Ethanol production did not seem to drive up U.S. food prices significantly through 2006. According to the USDA Economic Research Service (ERS), the consumer price index (CPI) for food increased at an average annual rate of 2.6% from 1996 through 2005.[i] In 2006, with record growth in ethanol production and sharply higher corn prices, the CPI for food went up only 2.3%. This is 0.3% below the average annual increase over the previous 10 years. The CPI for meats alone, which should be more sensitive to the price of corn, went up only 0.7% in 2006.[ii] What if corn prices continue to rise? A study by the Center for Agriculture and Resource Development at Iowa State University estimates a 30% increase in corn prices would boost overall average food prices by only 1.1%.[iii]
Corn prices have a minimal effect on the cost of food in part because grain prices are no longer a large component of food prices. The cost of labor is more important today. “Farm value has declined continuously as a percentage of total consumer expenditures, while labor has risen continuously,” explains USDA ERS. “Labor is by far the largest and most influential component of the consumer's food dollar. Higher labor costs reflect increased food industry employment stimulated by consumer demand for convenience foods that require significant processing.”[iv] We also tend to ship foods greater distances than in the past. As the cost of fuel for shipping goes up, so will food prices. Higher crude oil prices tend to boost the cost of goods across the board.
Food AND Fuel from Corn
Running corn through a biorefinery takes only part of it out of the food supply. Ethanol is made from the starch portion of the corn kernel. Starch is less likely than other components to be in short supply for human or animal food. Most of the protein, oil, and other nutrients are left after the starch is removed. These nutrients are available for livestock or human consumption.
About 1/3 of the corn used in dry-mill ethanol production (the most common process) is available in the form of coproduct feeds. This amounts to about 17 pounds of Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) per bushel.[v] DDGS has a greater feed value than the same amount of whole corn in a feed ration. One study showed DDGS has a 27% greater net energy value than dry rolled corn when fed to heifers on forage.[vi]
With continued growth in ethanol production, coproduct supplies could eventually exceed the amount needed for animal feed. Coproducts could then be used as fuel for powering ethanol biorefineries. Brazilian biorefineries use leftover portions of sugar cane for power production. Using DDGS this way would reduce the amount of natural gas or coal needed for powering ethanol biorefineries. Human consumption is another promising use for corn ethanol coproducts. Companies are developing processing techniques that yield corn oil, corn fiber, gluten, and proteins for human consumption, while also producing ethanol and even raw materials for biodegradable plastics. In addition to enhancing our food supply, these new processing methods could increase the profitability of ethanol biorefineries.
See chapter 7 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Ethanol and World Hunger
Fossil Fuels and Agriculture
Sustainable Farming
Land Use Issues
Diversifying Energy Crops
High-Diversity Grassland
Enhancing Food Production with Energy Farming
Figure 7-1. Average Price Paid U.S. Farmers per Bushel of Corn, 1980-2007
Figure 7-2. Corn Planted Since 1992 per Market Year
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Notes
[i]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food CPI, Prices, and Expenditures, March 26, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[ii]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food CPI, Prices, and Expenditures: CPI for Food Forecasts, March 26, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[iii]. Helen H. Jensen and Bruce A. Babcock, “Do Biofuels Mean Inexpensive Food Is a Thing of the Past?,” Iowa Ag Review Online 13 (Summer 2007).
[iv]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food Marketing and Price Spreads: Relationships between Price Spreads and Marketing Input Costs, April 25, 2002, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[v]. Keith Collins (Chief Economist, USDA), Statement before the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, September 6, 2006, http://www.usda.gov/oce/newsroom/congressional_testimony/
Biofuels%20Testimony%209-6-2006.doc.
[vi]. G. E. Erickson, T. J. Klopfenstein, D. C. Adams, and R. J. Rasby, “General Overview of Feeding Corn Milling Co-Products to Beef Cattle,” in Corn Processing Co-products Manual (University of Nebraska Lincoln), January 2005, http://beef.unl.edu/byprodfeeds/manual_02_02.shtml.
Food, Farming, and Land Use
We count on agriculture for a reliable and affordable food supply. American farmers have succeeded in this mission. In fact, farmers have been plagued with surplus production and low prices in recent decades. In 2005, farmers were being paid only around $2.00 per bushel of corn even though about 14% of the crop was put through ethanol biorefineries (USDA ERS data). At these incredibly low prices, it was impossible for most corn farmers to make a profit without government subsidies. While most other commodities rise in line with inflation, grain prices have remained low.
Prices are finally rising, but corn is still a bargain compared to non-food commodities. From the beginning, a major goal of the fuel ethanol movement was higher crop prices so farmers could make a living without government subsidies. That is exactly what is happening.
Growing up in America’s Corn Belt during the 1980’s, your authors witnessed mountains of corn left in the open many years because large crops overwhelmed grain storage capacity. Grain prices fell, profits evaporated, and many farmers lost land that had been in their families for generations. A few farmers decided it was time to bring back a fuel ethanol industry that could make use of surplus grain. Their hard work eventually paid off. The fuel ethanol industry is thriving while our food supply remains plentiful and relatively inexpensive. But how much can we expect from the land? Will energy production endanger our food supply? Other concerns are even more pressing. The rising price of fossil fuels threatens the profitability of farms reliant on petroleum-derived chemical fertilizers and pesticides. These challenges present opportunities for farmers. Integrated production of food, fuel, and fiber using sustainable farming methods can provide solutions for food and energy security while also improving farm profits and our environment.
(continued below)
Food Prices
Ethanol production did not seem to drive up U.S. food prices significantly through 2006. According to the USDA Economic Research Service (ERS), the consumer price index (CPI) for food increased at an average annual rate of 2.6% from 1996 through 2005.[i] In 2006, with record growth in ethanol production and sharply higher corn prices, the CPI for food went up only 2.3%. This is 0.3% below the average annual increase over the previous 10 years. The CPI for meats alone, which should be more sensitive to the price of corn, went up only 0.7% in 2006.[ii] What if corn prices continue to rise? A study by the Center for Agriculture and Resource Development at Iowa State University estimates a 30% increase in corn prices would boost overall average food prices by only 1.1%.[iii]
Corn prices have a minimal effect on the cost of food in part because grain prices are no longer a large component of food prices. The cost of labor is more important today. “Farm value has declined continuously as a percentage of total consumer expenditures, while labor has risen continuously,” explains USDA ERS. “Labor is by far the largest and most influential component of the consumer's food dollar. Higher labor costs reflect increased food industry employment stimulated by consumer demand for convenience foods that require significant processing.”[iv] We also tend to ship foods greater distances than in the past. As the cost of fuel for shipping goes up, so will food prices. Higher crude oil prices tend to boost the cost of goods across the board.
Food AND Fuel from Corn
Running corn through a biorefinery takes only part of it out of the food supply. Ethanol is made from the starch portion of the corn kernel. Starch is less likely than other components to be in short supply for human or animal food. Most of the protein, oil, and other nutrients are left after the starch is removed. These nutrients are available for livestock or human consumption.
About 1/3 of the corn used in dry-mill ethanol production (the most common process) is available in the form of coproduct feeds. This amounts to about 17 pounds of Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) per bushel.[v] DDGS has a greater feed value than the same amount of whole corn in a feed ration. One study showed DDGS has a 27% greater net energy value than dry rolled corn when fed to heifers on forage.[vi]
With continued growth in ethanol production, coproduct supplies could eventually exceed the amount needed for animal feed. Coproducts could then be used as fuel for powering ethanol biorefineries. Brazilian biorefineries use leftover portions of sugar cane for power production. Using DDGS this way would reduce the amount of natural gas or coal needed for powering ethanol biorefineries. Human consumption is another promising use for corn ethanol coproducts. Companies are developing processing techniques that yield corn oil, corn fiber, gluten, and proteins for human consumption, while also producing ethanol and even raw materials for biodegradable plastics. In addition to enhancing our food supply, these new processing methods could increase the profitability of ethanol biorefineries.
See chapter 7 of Sustainable Ethanol for these additional topics:
Ethanol and World Hunger
Fossil Fuels and Agriculture
Sustainable Farming
Land Use Issues
Diversifying Energy Crops
High-Diversity Grassland
Enhancing Food Production with Energy Farming
Figure 7-1. Average Price Paid U.S. Farmers per Bushel of Corn, 1980-2007
Figure 7-2. Corn Planted Since 1992 per Market Year
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
Click here to order directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here for ordering information from Amazon
Notes
[i]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food CPI, Prices, and Expenditures, March 26, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[ii]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food CPI, Prices, and Expenditures: CPI for Food Forecasts, March 26, 2007, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[iii]. Helen H. Jensen and Bruce A. Babcock, “Do Biofuels Mean Inexpensive Food Is a Thing of the Past?,” Iowa Ag Review Online 13 (Summer 2007).
[iv]. USDA Economic Research Service, Food Marketing and Price Spreads: Relationships between Price Spreads and Marketing Input Costs, April 25, 2002, http://www.ers.usda.gov/.
[v]. Keith Collins (Chief Economist, USDA), Statement before the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, September 6, 2006, http://www.usda.gov/oce/newsroom/congressional_testimony/
Biofuels%20Testimony%209-6-2006.doc.
[vi]. G. E. Erickson, T. J. Klopfenstein, D. C. Adams, and R. J. Rasby, “General Overview of Feeding Corn Milling Co-Products to Beef Cattle,” in Corn Processing Co-products Manual (University of Nebraska Lincoln), January 2005, http://beef.unl.edu/byprodfeeds/manual_02_02.shtml.
8: Ethanol Production
The following is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Ethanol Production
We should evaluate the ethanol industry not by yesterday’s technology, but by the high-efficiency methods rapidly being implemented. Due to rising costs, producers are realizing the need to lessen dependence on corn kernels as a feedstock and natural gas as a process fuel. This chapter is about the production advances making ethanol make sense—making it less expensive and more environmentally friendly. Advances might even involve producing other biofuels such as butanol. These technologies will steadily improve the sustainability of biofuels.
(continued below)
Large Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol is generally made like beverage alcohol—sugars are fermented and the resulting “beer” is purified by distillation. Another approach is the syngas (or thermochemical) platform. Cellulosic biomass is gasified, producing a synthesis gas which can be converted into ethanol or other useful substances through chemical catalysis.[i] Pyrolysis of cellulosic biomass also has potential. Pyrolysis oil can be upgraded to ethanol or other biofuels.
Ethanol can be made from just about any organic material. Simple sugars allow the easiest path to ethanol production. Feedstocks such as sugar cane, sweet sorghum, Jerusalem artichoke tops, and sugar beets contain readily fermentable sugars.
North America’s ethanol industry is currently based on starch feedstocks. Starch must be hydrolyzed, releasing sugars prior to fermentation. It can be stored for long periods, facilitating year-round biorefining. Field corn (not sweet corn) is the main starch crop for making ethanol in North America.
Cellulosic feedstocks are on the verge of commercialization. Cellulose and hemicellulose are more abundant than starch or free sugars. The use of cellulosic feedstocks could allow a huge expansion in biofuel production and divert waste streams from landfills. However, it is more difficult to liberate sugars from cellulosic materials than from starch. Cellulosic ethanol is being made on a pilot and demonstration scale. Until production costs come down, however, most North American ethanol will be made from the starch found in corn kernels.
See chapter 8 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
New Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sugar Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sweet Sorghum
Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichokes
Ethanol from Food Waste
On-Farm Ethanol from Waste Fruit
Ethanol from Beets
Ethanol from Corn Kernels
Adding Value to Coproducts
Ethanol from Field Peas
Ethanol from Grain Sorghum, Wheat, and Barley
Reducing Process Fuel Use
Reducing Water Use
Alternative Process Fuels
Combined Heat and Power
Ethanol-Livestock Integration
Small-Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol Transportation & Pipeline Issues
Butanol: The Other Alcohol
Figure 8-1. Ethanol Production Paths
Figure 8-2. Ethanol Production by Feedstock, 2006
Figure 8-3. Estimated Ethanol Yield by Feedstock
Figure 8-4. Estimated Production Cost by Feedstock
Figure 8-5. Ethanol Production from Corn Kernels
Figure 8-6. Conventional vs. Combined Heat & Power
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
Click here for ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
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Notes
[i]. USDA Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program, Integrated Biorefineries, 2005, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/integrated_biorefineries.html.
Ethanol Production
We should evaluate the ethanol industry not by yesterday’s technology, but by the high-efficiency methods rapidly being implemented. Due to rising costs, producers are realizing the need to lessen dependence on corn kernels as a feedstock and natural gas as a process fuel. This chapter is about the production advances making ethanol make sense—making it less expensive and more environmentally friendly. Advances might even involve producing other biofuels such as butanol. These technologies will steadily improve the sustainability of biofuels.
(continued below)
Large Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol is generally made like beverage alcohol—sugars are fermented and the resulting “beer” is purified by distillation. Another approach is the syngas (or thermochemical) platform. Cellulosic biomass is gasified, producing a synthesis gas which can be converted into ethanol or other useful substances through chemical catalysis.[i] Pyrolysis of cellulosic biomass also has potential. Pyrolysis oil can be upgraded to ethanol or other biofuels.
Ethanol can be made from just about any organic material. Simple sugars allow the easiest path to ethanol production. Feedstocks such as sugar cane, sweet sorghum, Jerusalem artichoke tops, and sugar beets contain readily fermentable sugars.
North America’s ethanol industry is currently based on starch feedstocks. Starch must be hydrolyzed, releasing sugars prior to fermentation. It can be stored for long periods, facilitating year-round biorefining. Field corn (not sweet corn) is the main starch crop for making ethanol in North America.
Cellulosic feedstocks are on the verge of commercialization. Cellulose and hemicellulose are more abundant than starch or free sugars. The use of cellulosic feedstocks could allow a huge expansion in biofuel production and divert waste streams from landfills. However, it is more difficult to liberate sugars from cellulosic materials than from starch. Cellulosic ethanol is being made on a pilot and demonstration scale. Until production costs come down, however, most North American ethanol will be made from the starch found in corn kernels.
See chapter 8 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following additional topics:
New Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sugar Feedstocks
Ethanol from Sweet Sorghum
Ethanol from Jerusalem Artichokes
Ethanol from Food Waste
On-Farm Ethanol from Waste Fruit
Ethanol from Beets
Ethanol from Corn Kernels
Adding Value to Coproducts
Ethanol from Field Peas
Ethanol from Grain Sorghum, Wheat, and Barley
Reducing Process Fuel Use
Reducing Water Use
Alternative Process Fuels
Combined Heat and Power
Ethanol-Livestock Integration
Small-Scale Ethanol Production
Ethanol Transportation & Pipeline Issues
Butanol: The Other Alcohol
Figure 8-1. Ethanol Production Paths
Figure 8-2. Ethanol Production by Feedstock, 2006
Figure 8-3. Estimated Ethanol Yield by Feedstock
Figure 8-4. Estimated Production Cost by Feedstock
Figure 8-5. Ethanol Production from Corn Kernels
Figure 8-6. Conventional vs. Combined Heat & Power
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. USDA Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program, Integrated Biorefineries, 2005, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/integrated_biorefineries.html.
9: Cellulosic Ethanol
The following excerpt is from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Cellulosic Ethanol
Many supporters of renewable biofuels see cellulosic ethanol as our best hope in the next few decades. The attraction lies in the sheer volume of potential feedstocks. Cellulosic ethanol (or butanol) does not refer to a distinct end product. Ethanol made from cellulosic materials is the same as ethanol from corn or sugar cane. The distinction lies in the feedstocks. Cellulosic biofuels can be made from practically any organic material. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Biomass Program lists the following categories of cellulosic feedstocks:[i]
● agricultural residues (leftover material from crops, such as the stalks, leaves, and husks of corn plants)
● forestry wastes (chips and sawdust from lumber mills, dead trees, and tree branches)
● municipal solid waste (household garbage and paper products)
● food processing and other industrial wastes (black liquor, a paper manufacturing by-product)
● energy crops (fast-growing trees and grasses) developed just for this purpose
Diverse feedstocks will allow an expansion in ethanol output. The challenge is in liberating plant sugars from the grip of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The following descriptions of these complex polymers are from the U.S. DOE:
See chapter 9 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following addtional topics:
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program, Information Resources, 2007, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html.
[ii]. Ibid.
Cellulosic Ethanol
Many supporters of renewable biofuels see cellulosic ethanol as our best hope in the next few decades. The attraction lies in the sheer volume of potential feedstocks. Cellulosic ethanol (or butanol) does not refer to a distinct end product. Ethanol made from cellulosic materials is the same as ethanol from corn or sugar cane. The distinction lies in the feedstocks. Cellulosic biofuels can be made from practically any organic material. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Biomass Program lists the following categories of cellulosic feedstocks:[i]
● agricultural residues (leftover material from crops, such as the stalks, leaves, and husks of corn plants)
● forestry wastes (chips and sawdust from lumber mills, dead trees, and tree branches)
● municipal solid waste (household garbage and paper products)
● food processing and other industrial wastes (black liquor, a paper manufacturing by-product)
● energy crops (fast-growing trees and grasses) developed just for this purpose
Diverse feedstocks will allow an expansion in ethanol output. The challenge is in liberating plant sugars from the grip of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. The following descriptions of these complex polymers are from the U.S. DOE:
● Cellulose is the most common form of carbon in biomass, accounting for
40%–60% by weight of the biomass, depending on the biomass source. It is a
complex sugar polymer, or polysaccharide, made from the six-carbon sugar,
glucose. Its crystalline structure makes it resistant to hydrolysis, the
chemical reaction that releases simple, fermentable sugars from a
polysaccharide.
● Hemicellulose is also a major source of carbon in biomass,
at levels of between 20% and 40% by weight. It is a complex polysaccharide made
from a variety of five and six-carbon sugars. It is relatively easy to hydrolyze
into simple sugars but the sugars are difficult to ferment to ethanol.
● Lignin is a complex polymer, which provides structural integrity in
plants. It makes up 10% to 24% by weight of biomass. It remains as residual
material after the sugars in the biomass have been converted to ethanol. It
contains a lot of energy and can be burned to produce steam and electricity for
the biomass-to-ethanol process.[ii]
See chapter 9 of Sustainable Ethanol for the following addtional topics:
- Commercializing Cellulosic Production
- Cellulosic Conversion Technologies
- Biochemical Methods
- Thermochemical Methods
- Biogas as a Transportation Fuel
- Waste & Coproduct Feedstocks
- Dedicated Cellulosic Energy Crops
- A Sticky Coproduct
- Harvest and Transportation of Feedstocks
- The Pyrolysis Route to Cellulosic Ethanol
- Regional Biomass Processing Centers
- Pipeline Transportation of Corn Stover Silage
- Economics of Cellulosic Ethanol
- How Much Ethanol Can We Make?
- Figure 9-1: The Biochemical Cellulosic Production Process
- Figure 9-2: Annual Biomass Potential from U.S. Forests and Agriculture
Ordering options for Sustainable Ethanol include:
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program, Information Resources, 2007, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html.
[ii]. Ibid.
10: Energy Balance
The following is an Excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Energy Balance:
Is Ethanol Renewable?
In order to convert matter or energy from one form to another or move it from one place to another, energy must be expended. This principle is behind the concept of energy balance or net energy ratio—energy obtained from a system divided by the energy put into a system. It’s supposed to help us compare different energy systems. Unfortunately, net energy ratio is not an ideal comparison tool because of the different qualities of various energy inputs and outputs.
All BTU’s are Not the Same
When computing net energy ratio, we need to assign some unit of energy to each energy carrier involved. Generally, energy in and out is measured in British Thermal Units (BTU’s). One BTU is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60°F to 61°F at one atmosphere pressure.[i] The number of BTU’s for an energy carrier such as ethanol or gasoline, then, is a measure of how well it can heat water when burned. This is probably as good a common denominator as we could use, but it does not take some important factors into account. “All BTU’s are not created equal,” as Dr. Bruce Dale of Michigan State University puts it.[ii]
Different energy carriers are not interchangeable. A pile of coal with the same BTU content as a gallon of gasoline will not get you down the road if you put it in your car’s gas tank. A BTU worth of gasoline will cost you more than a BTU worth of coal because of our thirst for liquid transportation fuels. If we are going to make comparisons based on net energy ratio, we should do so in a way that reflects our goals—our reasons for wanting to replace gasoline with an alternative like ethanol. Dr. Dale proposes two such “metrics”—Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio and Petroleum Replacement Ratio.[iii]
(continued below)
Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio
It is the fossil energy inputs that are non-renewable and can cause pollution of water and air. That’s why most energy balance studies actually consider the Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio (FER) rather than the total energy ratio, whether they call it that or not. In order to calculate FER, energy delivered to the consumer is divided by fossil energy inputs.
The majority of recent studies looking at ethanol from corn kernels show a positive FER (over 1.0), meaning more BTU’s are available in the ethanol than in the fossil fuels that went into producing that same ethanol. Of the 13 major studies on the subject completed between 1998 and 2005, 9 showed a positive net energy balance for corn ethanol.[v] In 2001, the USDA calculated an industry average 1.7 net energy ratio for corn ethanol (19 state average).[vi] Dr. Dale uses the conservative 1.4 FER figure in his comparisons. This means 1.4 BTU’s are delivered to the end consumer for every 1 BTU of fossil fuel input into the corn ethanol production system.
Higher FER means less fossil fuels were consumed for each available BTU. In other words, an energy carrier with a higher FER displaces more fossil fuels. In calculating FER, BTU’s from direct solar energy are not counted against ethanol. We can be fairly certain the sun will continue to shine and plants will continue to convert sunlight into biomass from year to year. Input from sunlight is what gives ethanol a positive Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio. Sunlight also sustained the plant life that became fossil fuels, but that took millions of years.
Petroleum Replacement Ratio
Petroleum is often imported from potentially unstable sources and shipped through areas vulnerable to environmental damage. Most fossil fuel inputs for U.S. ethanol production, on the other hand, are sourced from within North America—mainly coal and natural gas. Petroleum Replacement Ratio (PRR) reflects the degree of reliance on petroleum for a given energy carrier. In order to calculate PRR, energy delivered to the customer is divided by petroleum inputs. It counts only the petroleum BTU input against the BTU’s delivered to the final customer. An energy carrier with a higher PRR displaces more petroleum. Dr. Dale calculates a PRR of 20 for ethanol from corn kernels. For every 20 BTU’s delivered to the consumer, only 1 petroleum BTU went into the corn ethanol production system. This number reflects the fact that corn ethanol production relies on petroleum to a very small extent, making it desirable for our economy and security.
See chapter 10 of Sustainable Ethanol for these topics:
Rating Cellulosic Ethanol
Comparing Ethanol and Gasoline
Fuel Economy and Energy Balance
Variables and Trends
Figure 10-1: Calculating Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
Figure 10-2: Calculating Petroleum Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
Figure 10-3: Energy Balance Ratios for Ethanol and Gasoline
Figure 10-4: U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price, 1996–2007
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, Biomass Energy Data Book Glossary, http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/glossary.shtml.
[ii]. Bruce E. Dale, “Biofuels: Thinking Clearly about the Issues,” Presented at the 4th Annual Life Sciences & Society Symposium at the University of Missouri, Columbia, March 14, 2007; Also see www.everythingbiomass.org.
[iii]. Ibid.
[v]. Michael Wang, “The Debate on Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impacts of Fuel Ethanol,” University of Chicago Argonne National Laboratory, 2005, 24.
[vi]. Hosein Shapouri, “Net Energy Balance of Biofuels,” Presented at the 4th Annual Life Sciences & Society Symposium at the University of Missouri, Columbia, March 15, 2007.
Energy Balance:
Is Ethanol Renewable?
In order to convert matter or energy from one form to another or move it from one place to another, energy must be expended. This principle is behind the concept of energy balance or net energy ratio—energy obtained from a system divided by the energy put into a system. It’s supposed to help us compare different energy systems. Unfortunately, net energy ratio is not an ideal comparison tool because of the different qualities of various energy inputs and outputs.
All BTU’s are Not the Same
When computing net energy ratio, we need to assign some unit of energy to each energy carrier involved. Generally, energy in and out is measured in British Thermal Units (BTU’s). One BTU is the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60°F to 61°F at one atmosphere pressure.[i] The number of BTU’s for an energy carrier such as ethanol or gasoline, then, is a measure of how well it can heat water when burned. This is probably as good a common denominator as we could use, but it does not take some important factors into account. “All BTU’s are not created equal,” as Dr. Bruce Dale of Michigan State University puts it.[ii]
Different energy carriers are not interchangeable. A pile of coal with the same BTU content as a gallon of gasoline will not get you down the road if you put it in your car’s gas tank. A BTU worth of gasoline will cost you more than a BTU worth of coal because of our thirst for liquid transportation fuels. If we are going to make comparisons based on net energy ratio, we should do so in a way that reflects our goals—our reasons for wanting to replace gasoline with an alternative like ethanol. Dr. Dale proposes two such “metrics”—Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio and Petroleum Replacement Ratio.[iii]
(continued below)
Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio
It is the fossil energy inputs that are non-renewable and can cause pollution of water and air. That’s why most energy balance studies actually consider the Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio (FER) rather than the total energy ratio, whether they call it that or not. In order to calculate FER, energy delivered to the consumer is divided by fossil energy inputs.
The majority of recent studies looking at ethanol from corn kernels show a positive FER (over 1.0), meaning more BTU’s are available in the ethanol than in the fossil fuels that went into producing that same ethanol. Of the 13 major studies on the subject completed between 1998 and 2005, 9 showed a positive net energy balance for corn ethanol.[v] In 2001, the USDA calculated an industry average 1.7 net energy ratio for corn ethanol (19 state average).[vi] Dr. Dale uses the conservative 1.4 FER figure in his comparisons. This means 1.4 BTU’s are delivered to the end consumer for every 1 BTU of fossil fuel input into the corn ethanol production system.
Higher FER means less fossil fuels were consumed for each available BTU. In other words, an energy carrier with a higher FER displaces more fossil fuels. In calculating FER, BTU’s from direct solar energy are not counted against ethanol. We can be fairly certain the sun will continue to shine and plants will continue to convert sunlight into biomass from year to year. Input from sunlight is what gives ethanol a positive Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio. Sunlight also sustained the plant life that became fossil fuels, but that took millions of years.
Petroleum Replacement Ratio
Petroleum is often imported from potentially unstable sources and shipped through areas vulnerable to environmental damage. Most fossil fuel inputs for U.S. ethanol production, on the other hand, are sourced from within North America—mainly coal and natural gas. Petroleum Replacement Ratio (PRR) reflects the degree of reliance on petroleum for a given energy carrier. In order to calculate PRR, energy delivered to the customer is divided by petroleum inputs. It counts only the petroleum BTU input against the BTU’s delivered to the final customer. An energy carrier with a higher PRR displaces more petroleum. Dr. Dale calculates a PRR of 20 for ethanol from corn kernels. For every 20 BTU’s delivered to the consumer, only 1 petroleum BTU went into the corn ethanol production system. This number reflects the fact that corn ethanol production relies on petroleum to a very small extent, making it desirable for our economy and security.
See chapter 10 of Sustainable Ethanol for these topics:
Rating Cellulosic Ethanol
Comparing Ethanol and Gasoline
Fuel Economy and Energy Balance
Variables and Trends
Figure 10-1: Calculating Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
Figure 10-2: Calculating Petroleum Replacement Ratio for Corn Ethanol
Figure 10-3: Energy Balance Ratios for Ethanol and Gasoline
Figure 10-4: U.S. Natural Gas Wellhead Price, 1996–2007
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Notes
[i]. U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, Biomass Energy Data Book Glossary, http://cta.ornl.gov/bedb/glossary.shtml.
[ii]. Bruce E. Dale, “Biofuels: Thinking Clearly about the Issues,” Presented at the 4th Annual Life Sciences & Society Symposium at the University of Missouri, Columbia, March 14, 2007; Also see www.everythingbiomass.org.
[iii]. Ibid.
[v]. Michael Wang, “The Debate on Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Impacts of Fuel Ethanol,” University of Chicago Argonne National Laboratory, 2005, 24.
[vi]. Hosein Shapouri, “Net Energy Balance of Biofuels,” Presented at the 4th Annual Life Sciences & Society Symposium at the University of Missouri, Columbia, March 15, 2007.
11: Facing Our Energy Future
The following excerpt is from chapter 11 of Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Facing our Energy Future
Alcohol was used as a fuel well before the petroleum era. Over time, it came to be known as power alcohol, agricrude alcohol, gasohol, and finally ethanol. As the era of cheap oil comes to a close, ethanol and other biofuels will play an important role in our energy future. Just as William J. Hale’s 1930’s “agricrude”[i] terminology sounds odd to us, today’s biofuel technology will seem old-fashioned to future generations. We will find new ways to make, distribute, and use biofuels. Based on reasonably achievable advances, the future might include:
● sustainable farming of perennial energy crops
● additional biofuels such as biobutanol (a 4-carbon alcohol), bio-oil, and biogas joining ethanol and biodiesel
● transporting biofuels by pipeline
● super-efficient automobiles getting better fuel economy on biofuels than on petroleum
● “sugar cars” fueled by on-board conversion of sugars and starches to hydrogen[ii]
● replacing U.S. petroleum imports with domestic biofuels
Ramping up production and infrastructure will take time, while our appetite for liquid fuel continues to grow. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) predicts alternative technologies will displace the equivalent of only 4% of projected U.S. annual consumption of petroleum products by 2015.[iii] Such small numbers cause some skeptics to dismiss the whole idea of ethanol and other biofuels. This would be a mistake. Biofuels are not perfect, but they are better than the status quo. With technologies like cellulosic ethanol and biobutanol, biofuel market share will continue to grow. The DOE predicts alternative technologies could displace up to 34% of U.S. petroleum consumption in the 2025 through 2030 time frame, “if the challenges are met.”[iv]
Read more in Sustainable Ethanol, available at:
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from Amazon, click here
Notes
[i]. William J. Hale, Farmward March (New York: Coward-McCann, 1939).
[ii]. Researchers at Virginia Tech, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and the University of Georgia are developing technology for the direct enzymatic production of hydrogen from sugars and water. If perfected, it could increase the efficiency with which we use biomass such as corn starch. Susan Trulove, “Novel sugar-to-hydrogen technology promises transportation fuel independence,” Virginia Tech news release, May 23, 2007, http://www.vtnews.vt.edu/story.php?relyear=2007&itemno=300; The Zhang Lab, http://filebox.vt.edu/users/ypzhang/research.htm.
[iii]. United States Government Accountability Office, CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production, February 2007, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
[iv]. Ibid.
Facing our Energy Future
Alcohol was used as a fuel well before the petroleum era. Over time, it came to be known as power alcohol, agricrude alcohol, gasohol, and finally ethanol. As the era of cheap oil comes to a close, ethanol and other biofuels will play an important role in our energy future. Just as William J. Hale’s 1930’s “agricrude”[i] terminology sounds odd to us, today’s biofuel technology will seem old-fashioned to future generations. We will find new ways to make, distribute, and use biofuels. Based on reasonably achievable advances, the future might include:
● sustainable farming of perennial energy crops
● additional biofuels such as biobutanol (a 4-carbon alcohol), bio-oil, and biogas joining ethanol and biodiesel
● transporting biofuels by pipeline
● super-efficient automobiles getting better fuel economy on biofuels than on petroleum
● “sugar cars” fueled by on-board conversion of sugars and starches to hydrogen[ii]
● replacing U.S. petroleum imports with domestic biofuels
Ramping up production and infrastructure will take time, while our appetite for liquid fuel continues to grow. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) predicts alternative technologies will displace the equivalent of only 4% of projected U.S. annual consumption of petroleum products by 2015.[iii] Such small numbers cause some skeptics to dismiss the whole idea of ethanol and other biofuels. This would be a mistake. Biofuels are not perfect, but they are better than the status quo. With technologies like cellulosic ethanol and biobutanol, biofuel market share will continue to grow. The DOE predicts alternative technologies could displace up to 34% of U.S. petroleum consumption in the 2025 through 2030 time frame, “if the challenges are met.”[iv]
Read more in Sustainable Ethanol, available at:
Direct from Prairie Oak Publishing, click here
from Amazon, click here
Notes
[i]. William J. Hale, Farmward March (New York: Coward-McCann, 1939).
[ii]. Researchers at Virginia Tech, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and the University of Georgia are developing technology for the direct enzymatic production of hydrogen from sugars and water. If perfected, it could increase the efficiency with which we use biomass such as corn starch. Susan Trulove, “Novel sugar-to-hydrogen technology promises transportation fuel independence,” Virginia Tech news release, May 23, 2007, http://www.vtnews.vt.edu/story.php?relyear=2007&itemno=300; The Zhang Lab, http://filebox.vt.edu/users/ypzhang/research.htm.
[iii]. United States Government Accountability Office, CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production, February 2007, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
[iv]. Ibid.
Questions and Answers
The following is an excerpt from Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Ethanol Questions and Answers
● What is ethanol fuel?
Ethanol fuel is an alcohol used in internal combustion engines. In North America, it is usually sold blended with gasoline as E10 or E85.
● What is the difference between E10 and E85?
E10 is an automotive fuel made up of about 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. Modern cars can use it without modification. E10 is widely available in North America.
E85 is made up of approximately 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. It can be used only in vehicles equipped for higher levels of ethanol, such as flex-fuel vehicles. Find your nearest E85 pump by visiting the National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition web site: www.e85fuel.com.
A U.S. DOE tool locates all kinds of alternative fuels:
www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/infrastructure/locator.html.
● What is a flex-fuel vehicle?
In North America, “flex-fuel vehicle” (FFV) usually refers to an automobile designed to run on standard gasoline, E85, or any combination of the two. In other words, a flex-fuel vehicle runs fine on anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol. Many FFVs available in Brazil can run on 100% ethanol (see Chapter 5). The National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition maintains a list of FFVs at www.e85fuel.com.
● Will ethanol hurt my car?
Most manufacturers specifically approve the use of E10. If your car is very old or antique, you may need ethanol-free gasoline. E85 should be used only in vehicles specifically designed for it, commonly known as flex-fuel vehicles (see Chapter 5).
(continued below)
● Will ethanol reduce miles per gallon?
Studies by the EPA and American Coalition for Ethanol indicate E10 reduces fuel economy for some car models and improves it for others. Overall, the results are better than you would expect based on energy content alone.
Using E85 in flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) currently available in North America causes a significant loss in fuel economy. This is due to ethanol’s lower energy density. Future FFV models could get better fuel economy by taking advantage of ethanol’s knock-suppression ability (see Chapters 5 and 6). Look up EPA fuel economy data for FFVs at www.fueleconomy.gov.
The EPA and DOE provide an online tool for calculating the cost of using E85 and gasoline in your region and using your particular FFV. Click the cost calculator link at
www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml.
● Is ethanol good for the environment?
Many researchers believe ethanol is better for the environment than the gasoline it replaces. Advances in production and use efficiency are improving that advantage (see Chapter 4).
● Isn’t ethanol really non-renewable because of how much fossil energy it takes to make it?
A few studies conclude fossil fuel inputs for ethanol production are greater than the energy derived from ethanol use. Most studies, however, show a net gain because of solar energy collected by plants. Thanks to advances in farming and production efficiency, ethanol’s net energy balance is getting better (see Chapter 10).
● Can the U.S. totally replace gasoline with ethanol in the near future?
Not unless we cut back drastically on our energy use! Ethanol can, however, be a significant factor in reducing our dependence on imported oil. Other renewable solutions like butanol, biodiesel, biogas, direct solar, and wind will also be important. The U.S. Department of Energy predicts “alternative technologies” could displace the equivalent of 4% of projected U.S. annual consumption of petroleum products by 2015, and 34% in the 2025–2030 timeframe.[1]
● Is ethanol made from anything other than corn?
Ethanol can be made from any sugar. This may be in the form of simple sugars from sugar cane, sweet sorghum, and sugar beets. Starches from crops like corn, wheat, and milo can be converted to simple sugars for ethanol production as well. Ethanol and other biofuels can also be made from cellulose and hemicellulose broken down into sugars. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be found in organic municipal waste, crop residues, trees, or various energy crops (see Chapters 8 and 9).
This Q & A is from Sustainable Ethanol, available at:
Click here to learn about ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here to learn about ordering from Amazon
Notes
[1]. United States Government Accountability Office, CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production, February 2007, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
Ethanol Questions and Answers
● What is ethanol fuel?
Ethanol fuel is an alcohol used in internal combustion engines. In North America, it is usually sold blended with gasoline as E10 or E85.
● What is the difference between E10 and E85?
E10 is an automotive fuel made up of about 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. Modern cars can use it without modification. E10 is widely available in North America.
E85 is made up of approximately 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. It can be used only in vehicles equipped for higher levels of ethanol, such as flex-fuel vehicles. Find your nearest E85 pump by visiting the National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition web site: www.e85fuel.com.
A U.S. DOE tool locates all kinds of alternative fuels:
www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/infrastructure/locator.html.
● What is a flex-fuel vehicle?
In North America, “flex-fuel vehicle” (FFV) usually refers to an automobile designed to run on standard gasoline, E85, or any combination of the two. In other words, a flex-fuel vehicle runs fine on anywhere from 0% to 85% ethanol. Many FFVs available in Brazil can run on 100% ethanol (see Chapter 5). The National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition maintains a list of FFVs at www.e85fuel.com.
● Will ethanol hurt my car?
Most manufacturers specifically approve the use of E10. If your car is very old or antique, you may need ethanol-free gasoline. E85 should be used only in vehicles specifically designed for it, commonly known as flex-fuel vehicles (see Chapter 5).
(continued below)
● Will ethanol reduce miles per gallon?
Studies by the EPA and American Coalition for Ethanol indicate E10 reduces fuel economy for some car models and improves it for others. Overall, the results are better than you would expect based on energy content alone.
Using E85 in flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) currently available in North America causes a significant loss in fuel economy. This is due to ethanol’s lower energy density. Future FFV models could get better fuel economy by taking advantage of ethanol’s knock-suppression ability (see Chapters 5 and 6). Look up EPA fuel economy data for FFVs at www.fueleconomy.gov.
The EPA and DOE provide an online tool for calculating the cost of using E85 and gasoline in your region and using your particular FFV. Click the cost calculator link at
www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml.
● Is ethanol good for the environment?
Many researchers believe ethanol is better for the environment than the gasoline it replaces. Advances in production and use efficiency are improving that advantage (see Chapter 4).
● Isn’t ethanol really non-renewable because of how much fossil energy it takes to make it?
A few studies conclude fossil fuel inputs for ethanol production are greater than the energy derived from ethanol use. Most studies, however, show a net gain because of solar energy collected by plants. Thanks to advances in farming and production efficiency, ethanol’s net energy balance is getting better (see Chapter 10).
● Can the U.S. totally replace gasoline with ethanol in the near future?
Not unless we cut back drastically on our energy use! Ethanol can, however, be a significant factor in reducing our dependence on imported oil. Other renewable solutions like butanol, biodiesel, biogas, direct solar, and wind will also be important. The U.S. Department of Energy predicts “alternative technologies” could displace the equivalent of 4% of projected U.S. annual consumption of petroleum products by 2015, and 34% in the 2025–2030 timeframe.[1]
● Is ethanol made from anything other than corn?
Ethanol can be made from any sugar. This may be in the form of simple sugars from sugar cane, sweet sorghum, and sugar beets. Starches from crops like corn, wheat, and milo can be converted to simple sugars for ethanol production as well. Ethanol and other biofuels can also be made from cellulose and hemicellulose broken down into sugars. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be found in organic municipal waste, crop residues, trees, or various energy crops (see Chapters 8 and 9).
This Q & A is from Sustainable Ethanol, available at:
Click here to learn about ordering directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
Click here to learn about ordering from Amazon
Notes
[1]. United States Government Accountability Office, CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production, February 2007, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
Selected Resources
The following is in part from a book entitled Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Selected Resources/Bibliography
Chapter 1 — A Brief History of Ethanol
Books
● The Forbidden Fuel: Power Alcohol in the Twentieth Century, Hal Bernton, William Kovarik, and Scott Sklar, 1982.
● The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power, Daniel Yergin, 1993.
Web Site
● www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/ (Prof. Bill Kovarik's web site)
Chapter 2 — Will Cheap Oil Return?
Book
● Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, Matthew Simmons, 2006.
Report
● CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production (February 2007 Report from the United States Government Accountability Office) www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
Chapter 3 — Economic and Security Benefits
Reports
● Contributions of the Ethanol Industry to the Economy of the United States, John M. Urbanchuk, 2007 (Prepared for the Renewable Fuels Association by LECG LLC)
Find at http://www.ethanolrfa.org
● Ownership Matters: Three Steps to Ensure a Biofuels Industry that Truly Benefits Rural America, David Morris, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 2006. Find at http://www.newrules.org
● The Hidden Cost of Oil: An Update, The National Defense Council Foundation, January 8, 2007. Find at http://www.ndcf.org
Web Site
● www.carbohydrateeconomy.org (A project of the Institute for Local Self Reliance)
Chapter 4 — Environmental Impact
Report
● Does Ethanol Use Result in More Air Pollution?, David Morris and Jack Brondum, 2000. Institute for Local Self Reliance.
Find at www.carbohydrateeconomy.org
Web Site
● http://www.cleanairchoice.org/ (American Lung Association of the Midwest)
(continued below)
Chapter 5 — E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Web Sites
● www.e85fuel.com (National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition—Includes E85 station locator, listing of flex-fuel vehicles, and guide for determining if your car is flex-fuel)
● www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/infrastructure/locator.html
(U.S. DOE station locator—finds multiple alternative fuels)
● http://www.fueleconomy.gov/
(U.S. EPA—gives fuel economy ratings for flex-fuel vehicles)
● www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml (U.S. EPA—Link computes your cost of driving on E85 and standard gasoline)
● http://www.drivingethanol.org/ (Ethanol Promotion and Information Council—Promoting the benefits of ethanol)
● http://www.ethanolmt.org/ (Ethanol Producers & Consumers—non-profit association to support production and use of ethanol)
● http://www.cleanfuelsdc.org/ (Clean Fuels Development Coalition—non-profit organization to promote new technologies and increased production of clean fuels)
● http://www.americanbiofuelscouncil.com/ (American Biofuels Council—coordinates communication & education)
Chapter 7 — Food, Farming and Land Use
Web Sites
● www.leopold.iastate.edu (Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University)
● www.sare.org (USDA’s Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education)
● www.attra.org (National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service)
● http://www.newfarm.org/ (Rodale Institute)
Chapter 8 — Ethanol Production
Books about Home and Farm-scale Production
● The Ethanol Fuel Handbook, Lynn Ellen Doxon, 2001.
● Forget the Gas Pumps—Make Your Own Fuel, Jim Wortham, 1979.
Web Sites
● http://journeytoforever.org/ethanol.html (Information and links about small-scale, grassroots ethanol production and use)
● http://www.ethanolrfa.org/ (Renewable Fuels Association—National trade association for the U.S. ethanol industry)
● http://www.ethanol.org/ (American Coalition for Ethanol—Non-profit association to promote use and production of ethanol)
● http://www.greenfuels.org/ (The Canadian Renewable Fuels Association—Non-profit organization to promote renewable fuels)
Chapter 9 — Cellulosic Ethanol
Web Sites
● www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html (U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program)
● http://www.nrel.gov/ (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
● http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/
(Bioenergy Feedstock Information Network)
Chapter 10 — Energy Balance
Report
● Ethanol: Energy Well Spent, Literature Review by the National Resource Defense Council, 2006. www.nrdc.org/air/transportation/ethanol/ethanol.asp
Find out more about purchasing the Sustainable Ethanol book:
directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
at Amazon
Selected Resources/Bibliography
Chapter 1 — A Brief History of Ethanol
Books
● The Forbidden Fuel: Power Alcohol in the Twentieth Century, Hal Bernton, William Kovarik, and Scott Sklar, 1982.
● The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power, Daniel Yergin, 1993.
Web Site
● www.runet.edu/~wkovarik/ (Prof. Bill Kovarik's web site)
Chapter 2 — Will Cheap Oil Return?
Book
● Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy, Matthew Simmons, 2006.
Report
● CRUDE OIL: Uncertainty about Future Oil Supply Makes It Important to Develop a Strategy for Addressing a Peak and Decline in Oil Production (February 2007 Report from the United States Government Accountability Office) www.gao.gov/new.items/d07283.pdf.
Chapter 3 — Economic and Security Benefits
Reports
● Contributions of the Ethanol Industry to the Economy of the United States, John M. Urbanchuk, 2007 (Prepared for the Renewable Fuels Association by LECG LLC)
Find at http://www.ethanolrfa.org
● Ownership Matters: Three Steps to Ensure a Biofuels Industry that Truly Benefits Rural America, David Morris, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 2006. Find at http://www.newrules.org
● The Hidden Cost of Oil: An Update, The National Defense Council Foundation, January 8, 2007. Find at http://www.ndcf.org
Web Site
● www.carbohydrateeconomy.org (A project of the Institute for Local Self Reliance)
Chapter 4 — Environmental Impact
Report
● Does Ethanol Use Result in More Air Pollution?, David Morris and Jack Brondum, 2000. Institute for Local Self Reliance.
Find at www.carbohydrateeconomy.org
Web Site
● http://www.cleanairchoice.org/ (American Lung Association of the Midwest)
(continued below)
Chapter 5 — E10, E85, and Flex-Fuel Vehicles
Web Sites
● www.e85fuel.com (National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition—Includes E85 station locator, listing of flex-fuel vehicles, and guide for determining if your car is flex-fuel)
● www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/infrastructure/locator.html
(U.S. DOE station locator—finds multiple alternative fuels)
● http://www.fueleconomy.gov/
(U.S. EPA—gives fuel economy ratings for flex-fuel vehicles)
● www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml (U.S. EPA—Link computes your cost of driving on E85 and standard gasoline)
● http://www.drivingethanol.org/ (Ethanol Promotion and Information Council—Promoting the benefits of ethanol)
● http://www.ethanolmt.org/ (Ethanol Producers & Consumers—non-profit association to support production and use of ethanol)
● http://www.cleanfuelsdc.org/ (Clean Fuels Development Coalition—non-profit organization to promote new technologies and increased production of clean fuels)
● http://www.americanbiofuelscouncil.com/ (American Biofuels Council—coordinates communication & education)
Chapter 7 — Food, Farming and Land Use
Web Sites
● www.leopold.iastate.edu (Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State University)
● www.sare.org (USDA’s Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education)
● www.attra.org (National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service)
● http://www.newfarm.org/ (Rodale Institute)
Chapter 8 — Ethanol Production
Books about Home and Farm-scale Production
● The Ethanol Fuel Handbook, Lynn Ellen Doxon, 2001.
● Forget the Gas Pumps—Make Your Own Fuel, Jim Wortham, 1979.
Web Sites
● http://journeytoforever.org/ethanol.html (Information and links about small-scale, grassroots ethanol production and use)
● http://www.ethanolrfa.org/ (Renewable Fuels Association—National trade association for the U.S. ethanol industry)
● http://www.ethanol.org/ (American Coalition for Ethanol—Non-profit association to promote use and production of ethanol)
● http://www.greenfuels.org/ (The Canadian Renewable Fuels Association—Non-profit organization to promote renewable fuels)
Chapter 9 — Cellulosic Ethanol
Web Sites
● www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/abcs_biofuels.html (U.S. DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program)
● http://www.nrel.gov/ (National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
● http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/
(Bioenergy Feedstock Information Network)
Chapter 10 — Energy Balance
Report
● Ethanol: Energy Well Spent, Literature Review by the National Resource Defense Council, 2006. www.nrdc.org/air/transportation/ethanol/ethanol.asp
Find out more about purchasing the Sustainable Ethanol book:
directly from Prairie Oak Publishing
at Amazon
Ethanol Glossary
The following excerpt is from a book entitled Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence
Glossary
alcohol—An organic compound with a carbon bound to a hydroxyl group. Examples are methanol, CH3OH, and ethanol, CH3CH2OH.
anhydrous ethanol—Ethanol with almost all water removed.
ARS—USDA, Agricultural Research Service
bagasse—The solid material left after processing sugar cane to produce sugar or ethanol. Often burned for power production, but could be made into more ethanol with cellulosic processing techniques.
biodiesel—A renewable, biodegradable transportation fuel for use in diesel engines. It is produced from organically derived oils or fats. Biodiesel can be used as a component of or replacement for diesel fuel.
bioenergy—Renewable energy derived from organic matter.
biofuel—Liquid, solid, or gaseous fuel produced by conversion of biomass. Examples include woodchips, biodiesel, ethanol from biomass, bio-oil, and biogas.
biogas—A renewable gas derived from decomposing organic material under anaerobic conditions. Normally consists of 50–60% methane. Can be upgraded to replace fossil-based natural gas for automobiles, heating, cooking, generation of electricity, and other uses.
biomass—Organic matter available on a renewable basis. Includes agricultural crops, residues, wood and wood waste, animal wastes, fast-growing trees, municipal waste, and food processing waste.
bio-oil—A liquid fuel produced by the pyrolysis of biomass. Bio-oil can be upgraded to ethanol or other biofuels and materials. As an energy-dense intermediate, it is easier to transport than raw biomass.
biorefineriy—A facility for the production of biofuels.
BTU—British Thermal Unit. A standard unit of measure representing the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit at sea level.
butanol—(C4H10O) An alcohol. Sometimes referred to as “biobutanol” when made from biomass such as grains or cellulosic material. It has a higher volumetric energy content than ethanol and shows promise as an automotive fuel if production costs can be brought down.
cellulose—A long chain of glucose (sugar) molecules. Strengthens the cell walls of most plants.
cellulosic ethanol—Ethanol made from cellulose or hemicellulose after breaking them down into constituent sugars.
CHP—Combined Heat and Power. Also known as cogeneration. The production of electricity and useful thermal energy from a common fuel source, increasing energy efficiency.
coproduct—A product of biomass processing when multiple products are produced from the same feedstock.
crop residue—Organic residue remaining after harvesting a crop.
crop rotation—Alternating the crops grown on a given plot of land. Can improve soil fertility and help reduce pests and diseases.
DDGS—Dried Distillers Grain with Solubles. Nutrient-rich coproduct of
ethanol production from grains. Can be a high quality livestock feed.
denatured ethanol—Ethanol made unfit for beverage use.
(continued below)
distillation—Extraction of a volatile component (such as alcohol) by condensation and collection of vapors produced as a mixture is heated.
DOE—United States Department of Energy
E10—A mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline based on volume.
E85—A mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline based on volume.
ERS—USDA, Economic Research Service
EIA—DOE, Energy Information Administration
EPA—United States Environmental Protection Agency
ensilage—The process of partially fermenting and storing fresh plant material in an oxygen-poor environment.
enzyme—A protein or protein-based molecule that can speed up chemical reactions in biomass.
ethanol—(CH3CH2OH) A colorless, flammable liquid usually produced by fermentation of sugars. Used as a fuel oxygenate and replacement for gasoline. Ethanol is the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages.
ethanol optimization—Designing an engine for better efficiency, performance, or fuel economy when powered by ethanol.
ethanol-livestock integration—Combining livestock and ethanol production in a synergystic fashion, resulting in greater energy efficiency and other benefits. Livestock waste can serve as the process fuel for a biorefinery, for instance, while DDGS is fed to the livestock.
feedstock—Any material converted to another useful form or product. For example, cornstarch can be a feedstock for ethanol production.
FER—Fossil Energy Replacement Ratio. Energy delivered to the final customer divided by the fossil energy inputs into the production system for a given energy carrier such as ethanol. FER is a measure of reliance on fossil energy. Higher FER means less fossil energy went into producing that energy carrier.
fermentation—A biochemical reaction that breaks down complex organic molecules into simpler materials. Bacteria or yeasts can ferment sugars to ethanol, for instance.
flex-fuel vehicle—A vehicle that can operate on alternative fuels (usually E85 in North America) or on traditional fuels such as ethanol-free gasoline or a mixture of alternative and traditional fuels.
fossil fuels—Solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels formed in the ground after millions of years by chemical and physical changes in plant and animal residues under high temperature and pressure.
gasification—A chemical or heat process to convert coal, biomass, wastes, or other carbon-containing materials into a gaseous form that can be burned to generate power or processed into chemicals and fuels, including ethanol.
glucose—A simple six-carbon sugar, C6H12O6. A sweet, colorless sugar that is the most common sugar in nature and the sugar most commonly fermented to ethanol.
greenhouse gases—Those gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, that are transparent to solar radiation but opaque to long wave radiation.
hemicellulose—Short, highly branched chains of sugars. In contrast to cellulose, which is a polymer of only glucose, a hemicellulose is a polymer of five different sugars. Compared to cellulose, the branched nature of hemicellulose renders it relatively easy to hydrolyze.
hydrated ethanol—Ethanol containing a significant amount of water. Can be used as a fuel in engines designed or modified for the purpose.
hydrolysis—The conversion of a complex substance into two or more smaller units, such as the conversion of cellulose into glucose sugar units for cellulosic ethanol production.
landfill gas—A bio-gas produced as a byproduct of decomposition in landfills. Can be a process fuel or feedstock for biofuel production.
legumes—Plants in the pea family, characterized by their ability to host nitrogen-fixing bacteria, lessening or eliminating the need for nitrogen fertilization. Includes beans, alfalfa, and many native prairie plants.
lignin—The major structural constituent of wood and other plant materials. It cements cells together. A co-product of some cellulosic ethanol production systems, it can be burned as a process fuel.
MIT—Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MTBE—Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether. A colorless, flammable liquid. Used as an oxygenate additive to gasoline to increase octane and reduce engine knock.
ORNL—Oak Ridge National Laboratory
octane rating—A number indicating a fuel's resistance to self-ignition, hence also a measure of the antiknock performance of the fuel.
oxygenates—Substances which, when added to gasoline, increase the amount of oxygen in that gasoline blend. Ethanol, Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE), Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (ETBE), and Methanol are some examples.
particulate matter—A small, discrete mass of solid or liquid matter that remains individually dispersed in gas or liquid emissions.
perennial crops—Crops that live multiple years without replanting.
petroleum—A generic term applied to fossil-derived oil and oil products in all forms. Includes crude oil, unfinished oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas plant liquids.
proof—A measure of the volume of ethanol in a liquid. Proof is twice the percentage number, so 100% ethanol would be 200 proof.
PRR—Petroleum Replacement Ratio. Energy delivered to the final customer divided by the petroleum inputs into the production system for a given energy carrier such as ethanol. PRR is a measure of reliance on petroleum, a fossil energy source more likely to be imported into the U.S. as compared to other fossil fuels. Higher FER means less petroleum went into producing that energy carrier.
starch—A molecule composed of long chains of linked glucose molecules.
Because of the way the glucose molecules are linked, starch can be readily broken down into glucose by enzymes. Glucose, a type of sugar, can then be fermented for ethanol production.
sustainable farming—Using farming methods that maintain productivity, soil fertility, and a healthy ecosystem over the long term.
USDA—United States Department of Agriculture
from the book entitled Sustainable Ethanol
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